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participants to provide information about themselves, including their thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviour, so they are classified as self-report methods."},{"text":"observational methods","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational methods involve researchers watching and recording behaviour rather than asking participants about themselves. Questionnaires and interviews are self-report methods because participants report their own experiences."},{"text":"experimental methods","correct":false,"explanation":"Experimental methods manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Questionnaires and interviews are self-report methods because they obtain information directly from participants."},{"text":"physiological methods","correct":false,"explanation":"Physiological methods measure bodily processes such as heart rate or brain activity. Questionnaires and interviews instead collect participants’ own reports, making them self-report methods."}]},{"id":"0236dc00-9050-4fc9-828e-724bfdedebaf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can self-report methods measure variables such as anxiety or prejudice?","back":"They access internal experiences that are hard to observe directly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They access internal experiences that are hard to observe directly.","correct":true,"explanation":"Anxiety and prejudice can involve private thoughts, feelings and attitudes that cannot easily be observed. Self-report methods allow participants to describe these internal experiences directly."},{"text":"They access observable behaviours that are easy to record directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observable behaviour does not necessarily reveal private feelings or attitudes. Self-report methods can measure anxiety or prejudice because they access internal experiences that are difficult to observe directly."},{"text":"They access physiological responses that are easy to measure directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physiological responses require bodily measurements rather than participants’ verbal or written reports. Self-report methods are useful because they access internal experiences that are hard to observe directly."},{"text":"They access unconscious processes that participants cannot report directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants cannot accurately self-report processes of which they are unaware. These methods measure anxiety or prejudice by accessing reportable internal experiences that are difficult to observe directly."}]},{"id":"750f61d7-900e-45ba-970b-f25762488633","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means defining a psychological variable in a measurable way.","back":"Operationalisation means defining a psychological variable in a measurable way.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Operationalisation","correct":true,"explanation":"Operationalisation converts an abstract psychological concept, such as stress or anxiety, into a specific, observable or quantifiable measure that can be used in research."},{"text":"Standardisation","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation means keeping procedures and instructions consistent across participants. Operationalisation means defining an abstract psychological variable in a specific way that allows it to be measured."},{"text":"Reliability","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability concerns whether a measure produces consistent results. Operationalisation is the process of defining a psychological variable precisely so that researchers can measure it."},{"text":"Validity","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether a study or instrument measures what it intends to measure. Operationalisation means specifying exactly how a psychological variable will be measured."}]},{"id":"41df6a7c-5691-42e9-9bac-3860c5b061ac","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"If stress is not clearly operationalised, what validity problem may occur?","back":"The questionnaire may not measure the intended variable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The questionnaire may not measure the intended variable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without a clear measurable definition of stress, the questions may assess a different construct. This reduces validity because the questionnaire does not measure what it intends to measure."},{"text":"The questionnaire may not eliminate researcher bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researcher bias concerns the influence of researchers’ expectations, not the definition of a variable. Poor operationalisation means the questionnaire may fail to measure the intended variable."},{"text":"The questionnaire may not measure the same variable consistently.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consistency is primarily a reliability issue. Unclear operationalisation threatens validity because the questionnaire may measure something different from the intended psychological variable."},{"text":"The questionnaire may not represent the target population accurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Representativeness depends mainly on sampling rather than operationalisation. If stress is poorly defined, the key validity problem is failure to measure the intended variable."}]},{"id":"32b9ef8e-01fc-495b-9465-d79fc18af1bc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which question type suits depth and unexpected answers?","back":"An open question.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An open question.","correct":true,"explanation":"Open questions allow participants to answer freely in their own words. This can produce detailed explanations and reveal ideas or experiences that the researcher did not anticipate."},{"text":"A closed question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Closed questions restrict participants to predetermined answers, making unexpected responses unlikely. An open question permits detailed answers in participants’ own words and therefore provides greater depth."},{"text":"A leading question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Leading questions encourage a particular response and can reduce validity through response bias. An open question is suitable for obtaining depth and allowing unexpected answers."},{"text":"A standardised question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation means asking participants the same question in the same way, but it does not guarantee depth. An open question allows detailed and unexpected answers."}]},{"id":"4886d557-6097-4796-9c3d-38c00ba151f2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which question type suits easy comparison and statistical analysis?","back":"A closed question.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A closed question.","correct":true,"explanation":"Closed questions provide a fixed set of response options. Standardised responses can be counted, compared across participants and analysed using descriptive or inferential statistics."},{"text":"An open question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Open questions produce varied written or spoken responses that require interpretation and coding. A closed question provides fixed options, enabling straightforward comparison and statistical analysis."},{"text":"A follow-up question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Follow-up questions are used to explore an earlier answer and often increase depth rather than comparability. A closed question produces standardised responses suitable for statistical analysis."},{"text":"An unstructured question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unstructured questioning allows flexibility and produces responses that may differ greatly between participants. A closed question gives standardised answers that are easier to compare statistically."}]},{"id":"f607059b-dc3f-47a2-bfb0-841a34a030a2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Open questions usually produce [ ], while closed questions usually produce [ ].","back":"Open questions usually produce qualitative data, while closed questions usually produce quantitative data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Open questions usually produce qualitative data, while closed questions usually produce quantitative data.","correct":true,"explanation":"Open responses provide detailed words and meanings, producing qualitative data. Closed responses use fixed categories that can be counted or scored, usually producing quantitative data."},{"text":"Open questions usually produce quantitative data, while closed questions usually produce qualitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual relationship. Open questions generate descriptive qualitative data, whereas fixed responses from closed questions are commonly converted into numerical quantitative data."},{"text":"Open questions usually produce quantitative data, while closed questions usually produce quantitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first classification is wrong because unrestricted, own-word answers are normally qualitative. Closed questions usually produce quantitative data because their fixed responses can be counted."},{"text":"Open questions usually produce qualitative data, while closed questions usually produce qualitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second classification is wrong because closed responses are generally assigned categories or scores and analysed numerically. Open questions usually produce qualitative data, while closed questions produce quantitative data."}]},{"id":"c6a91d85-7e1f-4694-845d-37c3e3aa48d5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can open questions increase validity?","back":"Participants give own-word explanations, not forced categories.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants give own-word explanations, not forced categories.","correct":true,"explanation":"Answering in their own words lets participants express their actual meanings and experiences. This can improve validity by avoiding predetermined categories that may not accurately represent them."},{"text":"Participants give standardised numerical responses, making comparisons easier.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardised numerical responses are characteristic of closed questions and mainly improve ease of analysis. Open questions can increase validity by allowing own-word explanations instead of forcing categories."},{"text":"Participants select fixed response categories, reducing data complexity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixed categories describe closed questions and may oversimplify participants’ experiences. Open questions can improve validity because participants provide own-word explanations rather than being forced into categories."},{"text":"Participants receive identical answer choices, improving replicability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Identical answer choices are a feature of closed questions and are more closely linked to standardisation and reliability. Open questions increase validity through own-word explanations without forced categories."}]},{"id":"32b602ad-a5bd-4fbd-b4b0-1416a23632ee","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can closed questions improve reliability?","back":"Everyone answers the same fixed item/options.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Everyone answers the same fixed item/options.","correct":true,"explanation":"Standardising the item and available responses means every participant receives the same stimulus, making responses easier to replicate and compare consistently."},{"text":"Everyone gives a detailed individual explanation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing participants to explain responses introduces variation in interpretation and detail. Reliability improves because everyone answers the same fixed item/options."},{"text":"Everyone answers different personalised item/options.","correct":false,"explanation":"Changing the questions between participants reduces standardisation and makes replication difficult. Reliability improves because everyone answers the same fixed item/options."},{"text":"Researchers interpret each response in their own way.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researcher interpretation can introduce subjective inconsistency rather than reliability. Closed questions help because everyone answers the same fixed item/options."}]},{"id":"56502477-215b-4cdc-a20b-7327b4319168","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can limited closed-response options reduce validity?","back":"They force ill-fitting answers or oversimplify experiences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They force ill-fitting answers or oversimplify experiences.","correct":true,"explanation":"A restricted response set may not represent what participants genuinely think or experience, so the questionnaire measures their views less accurately."},{"text":"They create inconsistent answers or complicate experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardised options generally improve reliability rather than undermine validity through inconsistency. Validity falls when options force ill-fitting answers or oversimplify experiences."},{"text":"They allow faster answers or simplify data analysis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Faster completion is usually an advantage of closed questions, not the source of reduced validity. The problem is that they force ill-fitting answers or oversimplify experiences."},{"text":"They prevent lengthy answers or increase response rates.","correct":false,"explanation":"Preventing lengthy answers may reduce qualitative detail, but this wording misidentifies the central validity problem. Limited options force ill-fitting answers or oversimplify experiences."}]},{"id":"ad006add-967a-436c-be93-85a0676e1320","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A leading question [ ], while a double-barrelled question [ ].","back":"A leading question pushes participants towards an answer, while a double-barrelled question asks about two things at once.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A leading question pushes participants towards an answer, while a double-barrelled question asks about two things at once.","correct":true,"explanation":"Leading wording encourages a particular response, whereas double-barrelled wording combines two issues and makes it unclear which issue the participant is answering."},{"text":"A leading question avoids influencing participants’ answers, while a double-barrelled question asks about two things at once.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neutral wording avoids directing participants, so it does not define a leading question. A leading question pushes participants towards an answer; the double-barrelled definition given is accurate."},{"text":"A leading question pushes participants towards an answer, while a double-barrelled question asks about one thing at a time.","correct":false,"explanation":"A double-barrelled question combines two issues rather than isolating one. Leading questions push participants towards an answer, while double-barrelled questions ask about two things at once."},{"text":"A leading question asks about two things at once, while a double-barrelled question pushes participants towards an answer.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two concepts have been confused. Leading questions push participants towards an answer, whereas double-barrelled questions ask about two things at once."}]},{"id":"834d772f-1b49-4dbc-a822-a81e671d395f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is wrong with: Do you feel anxious and tired before exams?","back":"It is double-barrelled - anxiety and tiredness may differ.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is double-barrelled - anxiety and tiredness may differ.","correct":true,"explanation":"The question combines anxiety and tiredness, but a participant may experience one without the other, making a single response ambiguous."},{"text":"It is leading - anxiety and tiredness are expected.","correct":false,"explanation":"The wording does not direct respondents towards a preferred answer. It is double-barrelled because anxiety and tiredness are separate experiences that may differ."},{"text":"It uses jargon - anxiety and tiredness are technical.","correct":false,"explanation":"The vocabulary is ordinary rather than technical or specialised. It is double-barrelled because it asks about anxiety and tiredness together, although they may differ."},{"text":"It is open-ended - anxiety and tiredness need options.","correct":false,"explanation":"The main flaw is not the absence of answer choices in the question itself. It is double-barrelled because anxiety and tiredness may produce different responses."}]},{"id":"e2e48a92-e86e-4faa-bc6b-86586c98a5f7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can jargon reduce questionnaire accuracy?","back":"Participants may misunderstand technical language.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants may misunderstand technical language.","correct":true,"explanation":"If participants interpret specialist terminology incorrectly, their responses will not accurately represent their genuine knowledge, attitudes or experiences, reducing validity."},{"text":"Participants may choose socially approved answers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Socially desirable responding concerns presenting oneself favourably, not understanding jargon. Jargon reduces accuracy because participants may misunderstand technical language."},{"text":"Participants may avoid answering sensitive questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Skipping sensitive questions is associated with privacy or embarrassment rather than jargon. Technical wording reduces accuracy when participants misunderstand technical language."},{"text":"Participants may identify the research hypothesis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Guessing the research aim describes demand characteristics, not the direct effect of jargon. Jargon causes difficulty because participants may misunderstand technical language."}]},{"id":"9e827518-56d3-45dd-87b6-00abe285dda8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses [ ] can reduce it.","back":"Social desirability bias occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses anonymous can reduce it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Social desirability bias occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses anonymous can reduce it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social desirability bias produces answers intended to create a favourable impression. Anonymity reduces concern about being identified and therefore encourages more honest responding."},{"text":"Demand characteristics occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses anonymous can reduce it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics involve changing behaviour after inferring a study’s aim, not seeking social approval. The correct term is social desirability bias, which anonymity can reduce."},{"text":"Social desirability bias occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses standardised can reduce it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation makes procedures consistent but does not conceal respondents’ identities. Social desirability bias is reduced by making responses anonymous, which encourages honesty."},{"text":"Response bias occurs when participants answer to look better or socially approved. Making responses public can reduce it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Response bias is too broad here, and making answers public would intensify impression management. The specific issue is social desirability bias, reduced through anonymous responses."}]},{"id":"20926045-2356-4842-a72d-de5d60b37f44","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Contrast anonymity and confidentiality.","back":"

Anonymity - researcher cannot identify responses.
Confidentiality - identities may be known, data not revealed.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Anonymity - researcher cannot identify responses.
Confidentiality - identities may be known, data not revealed.

","correct":true,"explanation":"An anonymous response cannot be linked to its participant, whereas confidential research may record identities but protects them and does not disclose identifiable data."},{"text":"

Anonymity - identities may be known, data not revealed.
Confidentiality - researcher cannot identify responses.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These definitions are reversed. Under anonymity the researcher cannot identify responses; under confidentiality identities may be known, but identifiable data are not revealed."},{"text":"

Anonymity - researcher replaces names with numbers.
Confidentiality - identities are published with permission.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Using participant numbers can still permit identification if a researcher retains a key. True anonymity means responses cannot be identified, while confidentiality means known identities remain undisclosed."},{"text":"

Anonymity - participants answer questions in private.
Confidentiality - researcher destroys all collected data.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Private completion does not guarantee that responses cannot be identified, and confidentiality does not mean destroying all data. Anonymity prevents identification; confidentiality prevents disclosure."}]},{"id":"fe83c31e-c6df-47aa-bc38-cea082064d75","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why run a pilot questionnaire before the main study?","back":"To check materials/procedure work and improve flaws.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To check materials/procedure work and improve flaws.","correct":true,"explanation":"A pilot study tests whether instructions, questions and procedures function as intended, allowing ambiguous wording or practical problems to be corrected before full data collection."},{"text":"To check the hypothesis is supported and change results.","correct":false,"explanation":"A pilot is not primarily used to confirm a hypothesis or alter results. It checks whether the materials/procedure work so flaws can be improved."},{"text":"To check the whole population participates and prevent sampling.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recruiting the entire target population is neither the purpose nor a realistic feature of piloting. A pilot checks whether materials/procedure work and identifies flaws."},{"text":"To check participants know the aim and avoid consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"A pilot should reveal ambiguity rather than remove the need for informed consent. Its purpose is to check whether materials/procedure work and improve flaws."}]},{"id":"0903300a-a4dd-4d70-a8f4-9e42bfeb7c09","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A structured interview uses [ ], while an unstructured interview has [ ].","back":"A structured interview uses fixed pre-written questions in the same order, while an unstructured interview has no fixed list of questions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A structured interview uses fixed pre-written questions in the same order, while an unstructured interview has no fixed list of questions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Structured interviews standardise both the questions and their order, whereas unstructured interviews develop conversationally without a predetermined list, allowing the interviewer to explore participants’ responses."},{"text":"A structured interview uses no fixed list of questions, while an unstructured interview has fixed pre-written questions in the same order.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two interview types. Structured interviews use fixed pre-written questions in the same order, while unstructured interviews have no fixed list and develop naturally."},{"text":"A structured interview uses fixed pre-written questions in a different order, while an unstructured interview has no fixed list of questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing the question order to differ would reduce standardisation. A structured interview asks fixed pre-written questions in the same order, while an unstructured interview has no fixed list."},{"text":"A structured interview uses fixed pre-written questions in the same order, while an unstructured interview has a fixed list of closed questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed list of closed questions describes a structured approach, not an unstructured one. Unstructured interviews have no fixed list, so questions emerge from the conversation."}]},{"id":"ee0a7eae-3147-4890-b5f5-16591edb5cf8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are structured interviews more reliable than unstructured interviews?","back":"Each participant gets the same questions in the same order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each participant gets the same questions in the same order.","correct":true,"explanation":"Standardising the questions and their order makes the procedure consistent across participants. This allows another researcher to repeat the interview and obtain more comparable findings."},{"text":"Each participant gets the same questions in a different order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Changing the order may create order effects and makes the procedure less consistent. Reliability is increased because every participant receives the same questions in the same order."},{"text":"Each participant gets the same interviewer asking different questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using the same interviewer does not ensure reliability if the questions vary. Structured interviews are reliable because all participants receive the same questions in the same order."},{"text":"Each participant gets the freedom to develop their own answers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freedom to elaborate may increase depth, but it does not standardise the procedure. Reliability comes from asking each participant the same questions in the same order."}]},{"id":"85d50b9c-642f-48ed-8c10-bb30ab4277c2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are unstructured interviews harder to replicate?","back":"Each interview is different and develops naturally.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each interview is different and develops naturally.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without a fixed set and order of questions, the interviewer follows each participant’s responses. The resulting procedure differs between interviews and is difficult to reproduce precisely."},{"text":"Each interview is standardised and follows pre-written questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation makes an interview easier, not harder, to replicate. Unstructured interviews are difficult to repeat because each one is different and develops naturally through conversation."},{"text":"Each interview is identical and follows the same order.","correct":false,"explanation":"An identical procedure would support replication and is characteristic of structured interviews. Unstructured interviews vary because questions arise naturally from each participant’s particular responses."},{"text":"Each interview is recorded and produces qualitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording can help researchers preserve and review the procedure rather than preventing replication. The main difficulty is that each unstructured interview develops differently and naturally."}]},{"id":"267c43e6-bfed-48de-b1e9-2d34f0277d8f","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is a semi-structured interview a compromise?","back":"

Prepared questions allow comparison.
Follow-up questions allow depth.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Prepared questions allow comparison.
Follow-up questions allow depth.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Prepared questions provide enough standardisation to compare participants, while flexible follow-up questions let the interviewer explore individual responses and obtain richer, more detailed qualitative data."},{"text":"

Follow-up questions allow comparison.
Prepared questions allow depth.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the main functions of the two elements. Prepared questions support comparison across participants, while spontaneous follow-up questions explore responses in greater depth."},{"text":"

Prepared questions prevent interviewer effects.
Follow-up questions ensure replication.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Prepared questions cannot completely prevent interviewer effects, and varying follow-ups reduce exact replicability. The compromise combines comparable prepared questions with follow-up questions that provide depth."},{"text":"

Closed questions allow free expression.
Leading questions avoid response bias.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Closed questions restrict expression, while leading questions can create response bias. Semi-structured interviews instead balance prepared questions for comparison with follow-up questions for depth."}]},{"id":"b8c66a33-bdaa-4479-a360-2a4dcd012f04","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] occur when the interviewer’s characteristics or behaviour influence participant responses.","back":"Interviewer effects occur when the interviewer’s characteristics or behaviour influence participant responses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Interviewer effects","correct":true,"explanation":"Interviewer effects arise when features such as the interviewer’s age, appearance, tone or body language affect what participants say or how they behave."},{"text":"Investigator effects","correct":false,"explanation":"Investigator effects usually refer more broadly to a researcher’s influence on a study. In an interview specifically, influence from the interviewer’s characteristics or behaviour is called interviewer effects."},{"text":"Demand characteristics","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics occur when participants infer the study’s purpose and alter their behaviour. Influence caused specifically by the interviewer’s characteristics or conduct is termed interviewer effects."},{"text":"Social desirability bias","correct":false,"explanation":"Social desirability bias is the tendency to give socially acceptable answers. The broader influence of an interviewer’s characteristics or behaviour on responses is called interviewer effects."}]},{"id":"2dbab7f0-0a59-47a4-8568-2c00b283d199","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why check inter-rater reliability after coding qualitative answers?","back":"To see whether researchers code the same responses the same way.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To see whether researchers code the same responses the same way.","correct":true,"explanation":"Inter-rater reliability measures agreement between researchers applying the coding system. High agreement shows that categories are sufficiently clear for the same responses to receive the same codes."},{"text":"To see whether participants give the same responses on another occasion.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes test-retest reliability, which assesses consistency across time. Inter-rater reliability instead checks whether different researchers code the same qualitative responses in the same way."},{"text":"To see whether researchers ask the same questions in the same order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Asking identical questions concerns standardisation of the interview procedure. Inter-rater reliability is checked after coding to establish whether researchers classify the same responses in the same way."},{"text":"To see whether participants understand the same questions in the same way.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shared interpretation by participants concerns question clarity and validity, not inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability assesses whether researchers assign the same codes to the same responses."}]},{"id":"051c386f-e8df-4506-b1a9-c526340ac219","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are questionnaires practical for large samples?","back":"They are cheap, quick and easy to distribute, especially online.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They are cheap, quick and easy to distribute, especially online.","correct":true,"explanation":"Questionnaires can reach many geographically dispersed participants with little researcher time or expense. Online distribution makes collecting responses from a large sample particularly efficient."},{"text":"They are detailed, flexible and easy to clarify, especially online.","correct":false,"explanation":"Questionnaires usually offer limited flexibility, and participants cannot always request clarification, particularly online. Their practicality comes from being cheap, quick and easy to distribute."},{"text":"They are personal, adaptable and free from bias, especially online.","correct":false,"explanation":"Questionnaires are relatively impersonal, cannot adapt easily to each respondent and may contain response bias. Their advantage for large samples is cheap, quick and easy distribution."},{"text":"They are lengthy, expensive and difficult to distribute, especially online.","correct":false,"explanation":"These features would make questionnaires impractical for large samples and online distribution generally reduces such burdens. Questionnaires are useful because they are cheap, quick and easy to distribute."}]},{"id":"f60da0f5-0a98-43f4-839e-6dbdcc0f5e01","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"For a sensitive interview, give two safeguards that protect participants.","back":"

Right to withdraw or skip questions.
Confidentiality and support if distressed.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Right to withdraw or skip questions.
Confidentiality and support if distressed.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants should retain control by withdrawing or declining sensitive questions. Protecting confidentiality and offering appropriate support also reduce possible psychological and social harm from disclosure."},{"text":"

Obligation to continue and answer questions.
Public disclosure of personal responses.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Forcing participation and publishing identifiable responses violate autonomy and privacy. Participants need the right to withdraw or skip questions, together with confidentiality and support if distressed."},{"text":"

Deception throughout about interview aims.
No debriefing after sensitive questions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Unresolved deception and failure to debrief can increase distress rather than provide protection. Suitable safeguards include withdrawal rights, confidentiality and access to support after sensitive discussion."},{"text":"

Leading questions about private experiences.
Identifiable records shared with others.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Leading questions can pressure participants, while sharing identifiable records breaches privacy. Ethical safeguards include allowing withdrawal or skipped questions and maintaining confidentiality with support if needed."}]},{"id":"2f622b1f-6d23-496f-ad60-96662bf56136","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can demand characteristics reduce validity in self-report research?","back":"Participants may guess the aim and change answers or behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants may guess the aim and change answers or behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Demand characteristics arise when participants infer the study’s purpose and consciously or unconsciously alter their responses. Their answers then reflect the perceived aim rather than their genuine thoughts or behaviour."},{"text":"Participants may misremember past events and report them inaccurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Misremembering experiences is a recall or memory bias, not a demand characteristic. Demand characteristics reduce validity when participants guess the research aim and alter their answers or behaviour."},{"text":"Participants may choose socially desirable responses to present themselves favourably.","correct":false,"explanation":"Choosing favourable responses is social desirability bias rather than specifically a demand characteristic. Demand characteristics occur when participants infer the aim and modify their answers or behaviour accordingly."},{"text":"Researchers may interpret ambiguous answers according to their expectations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpreting responses according to expectations is researcher bias, not a participant demand characteristic. Demand characteristics involve participants guessing the aim and changing how they answer or behave."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Questionnaire and interview design","title":"Questionnaire and interview design Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"78ba1962-fbea-55b3-b1b2-7ce7c22d39b3","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]