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events from memory."},{"text":"It records behaviour as it is remembered.","correct":false,"explanation":"Remembered behaviour is a retrospective self-report and may be affected by memory errors. Observation instead records behaviour directly as it happens."},{"text":"It records attitudes as they are reported.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reported attitudes are obtained through self-report methods such as questionnaires or interviews. Observation is different because it records behaviour directly as it happens."},{"text":"It records behaviour after it has been interpreted.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpretation can introduce the observer’s subjective judgement and is not the defining feature of observation. Observation records behaviour directly as it happens."}]},{"id":"e8496c39-6da4-4fb7-81b9-efe004d67dd4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Operationalisation means defining a concept in [ ] terms.","back":"Operationalisation means defining a concept in clear, observable and measurable terms.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"clear, observable and measurable","correct":true,"explanation":"Operational definitions must be clear enough to apply consistently and must identify behaviour that can be directly observed and measured."},{"text":"broad, theoretical and abstract","correct":false,"explanation":"Abstract definitions do not tell observers exactly what to record. Operationalisation defines a concept in clear, observable and measurable terms."},{"text":"personal, subjective and flexible","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective and flexible definitions allow observers to interpret behaviour differently. Operationalisation requires clear, observable and measurable terms that can be applied consistently."},{"text":"general, descriptive and informal","correct":false,"explanation":"A general or informal description lacks precise recording criteria. Operationalisation expresses the concept in clear, observable and measurable terms."}]},{"id":"e6760ac9-116f-4482-a89c-85346d97d3ce","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why must vague behaviour such as “aggression” be operationalised before observing?","back":"Observers may count different behaviours.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observers may count different behaviours.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without a precise operational definition, observers may interpret aggression differently and record different actions, reducing the consistency and reliability of the data."},{"text":"Observers may count the same behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consistently counting the same defined behaviours is desirable rather than problematic. Vague terms must be operationalised because observers may otherwise count different behaviours."},{"text":"Participants may change their behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants changing their behaviour is reactivity, usually caused by awareness of being observed. Operationalisation is needed because vague concepts may lead observers to count different behaviours."},{"text":"Observers may use too many categories.","correct":false,"explanation":"The number of categories is a separate design decision and is not caused directly by vagueness. Operationalisation prevents observers from counting different behaviours as aggression."}]},{"id":"5f3f225a-f4bf-4da9-b7f7-a8f1945ed32f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Behavioural categories are the [ ] observers look for and record.","back":"Behavioural categories are the specific behaviours observers look for and record.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"specific behaviours","correct":true,"explanation":"Behavioural categories identify the specific, operationalised actions that observers watch for and record, helping them collect data consistently."},{"text":"personal opinions","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal opinions are subjective judgements rather than recordable actions. Behavioural categories should identify the specific behaviours observers look for and record."},{"text":"general explanations","correct":false,"explanation":"General explanations interpret why behaviour occurs rather than defining what should be recorded. Behavioural categories are the specific behaviours observers look for."},{"text":"participant memories","correct":false,"explanation":"Memories are retrospective self-reports and cannot normally be directly observed. Behavioural categories instead specify the behaviours that observers look for and record."}]},{"id":"1c2b8b8f-abe1-43b5-8372-4840b22747c3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is a coding scheme used for during an observation?","back":"To tick, tally or note behaviours when they occur.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To tick, tally or note behaviours when they occur.","correct":true,"explanation":"A coding scheme provides a standardised way for observers to record each occurrence of a defined behavioural category, such as by ticking or tallying."},{"text":"To ask, prompt or interview participants when they arrive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Asking or interviewing participants is a self-report procedure, not observational coding. A coding scheme is used to tick, tally or note behaviours when they occur."},{"text":"To interpret, explain or judge behaviours after they occur.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjectively interpreting behaviour can reduce objectivity and is not the coding scheme’s purpose. The scheme lets observers tick, tally or note defined behaviours when they occur."},{"text":"To select, assign or match participants before they arrive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Selecting, assigning or matching participants concerns sampling and experimental design. During an observation, a coding scheme is used to tick, tally or note behaviours."}]},{"id":"febf09d9-b329-4ff6-b38a-547149d64be8","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How can a behavioural category be made objective?","back":"Base it on visible or audible behaviour, not opinion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Base it on visible or audible behaviour, not opinion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Visible or audible actions can be identified directly using agreed criteria, reducing the influence of observers’ personal opinions and improving objectivity."},{"text":"Base it on personal interpretations of behaviour, not evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal interpretations are subjective and may differ between observers. An objective category must be based on visible or audible behaviour rather than opinion."},{"text":"Base it on participants’ reported intentions, not actions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reported intentions are self-reports and may not match actual behaviour. An objective observational category should be based on visible or audible behaviour."},{"text":"Base it on general personality traits, not specific acts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personality traits are broad constructs requiring interpretation rather than directly observable events. Objective categories should describe visible or audible behaviour, not opinion."}]},{"id":"bf242223-e11d-4f4f-979d-0cbbc22335a8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What problem occurs if behavioural categories are not mutually exclusive?","back":"One action could fit two categories at once.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"One action could fit two categories at once.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mutually exclusive categories must not overlap. If they do overlap, the same action may fit two categories, creating uncertainty or double-counting."},{"text":"One action could fit no category at all.","correct":false,"explanation":"An action fitting no category shows that the categories are not exhaustive, rather than not mutually exclusive. Overlapping categories allow one action to fit two categories."},{"text":"One action could be recorded too late by observers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delayed recording may result from poor observation procedures or an impractical coding system. Non-mutually-exclusive categories instead allow one action to fit two categories at once."},{"text":"One action could appear too infrequently to analyse.","correct":false,"explanation":"A low frequency concerns sampling or the natural rarity of a behaviour, not category overlap. Non-mutually-exclusive categories let one action fit two categories."}]},{"id":"ae8ecbfb-f9ed-4198-b969-ca0770fe74ae","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What problem occurs if behavioural categories are not exhaustive?","back":"Relevant behaviours may be missed unless an “other” category is included.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Relevant behaviours may be missed unless an “other” category is included.","correct":true,"explanation":"Exhaustive categories must cover every relevant behaviour. An “other” category provides a place to record unexpected actions that do not fit the named categories."},{"text":"Relevant behaviours may be double-counted unless categories do not overlap.","correct":false,"explanation":"Double-counting occurs when categories are not mutually exclusive and a behaviour fits more than one. Non-exhaustive categories instead cause relevant behaviours to be missed."},{"text":"Relevant behaviours may be misinterpreted unless observers are blinded.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blinding can reduce observer bias but does not ensure that every possible behaviour has a category. Exhaustive categories prevent relevant behaviours from being missed."},{"text":"Relevant behaviours may be altered unless observation is covert.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural alteration caused by awareness of observation is participant reactivity. Non-exhaustive categories instead mean relevant behaviours may be missed without an “other” category."}]},{"id":"eefcf5e0-4c5a-482a-a88e-a32463c80e87","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant [ ], not what the observer thinks they [ ].","back":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant does, not what the observer thinks they feel or intend.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant does, not what the observer thinks they feel or intend.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behavioural categories should refer to directly observable actions. Feelings and intentions are private mental states that an observer can only infer, making their recording more subjective."},{"text":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant feels, not what the observer thinks they feel or intend.","correct":false,"explanation":"Feelings cannot be observed directly, so treating them as behaviour introduces subjective interpretation. The category should describe what the participant does rather than what they may feel or intend."},{"text":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant does, not what the observer thinks they say aloud.","correct":false,"explanation":"Speech can be directly heard and recorded as observable behaviour, so it should not be treated like an inferred mental state. Feelings and intentions are the private states observers cannot see."},{"text":"A strong behavioural category describes what the participant intends, not what the observer thinks they do or say.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the distinction between observable behaviour and inferred mental states. Researchers can record what participants do or say, but they cannot directly observe what participants intend."}]},{"id":"de35c4e2-c5ae-4fbd-9c42-fb4346e619ed","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should mental-state categories like “anxious” be avoided unless operationalised?","back":"Observers cannot directly see private thoughts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observers cannot directly see private thoughts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mental states such as anxiety involve private thoughts and feelings that cannot be directly observed. They must therefore be operationalised through specific, observable indicators such as nail-biting or trembling."},{"text":"Observers cannot directly see facial expressions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Facial expressions are overt behaviours that observers can see and record. The difficulty with a category such as “anxious” is that the underlying private thoughts cannot be observed directly."},{"text":"Observers cannot directly see physical movements.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physical movements are observable and can form clearly operationalised behavioural categories. Mental-state labels are problematic because observers cannot directly see the private thoughts or feelings those labels describe."},{"text":"Observers cannot directly see overt behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overt behaviour is behaviour that can be directly observed, so this confuses observable actions with covert mental processes. Private thoughts cannot be seen and require observable operational definitions."}]},{"id":"7cb480c6-dec3-4a12-a7fa-c988bfb04449","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Event sampling records [ ] a target behaviour occurs during the observation period.","back":"Event sampling records every time a target behaviour occurs during the observation period.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"every time","correct":true,"explanation":"Event sampling involves recording each occurrence of a predefined target behaviour throughout the observation period. This produces a frequency count showing how often the event happened."},{"text":"at set intervals","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording behaviour at predetermined intervals is time sampling, not event sampling. Event sampling records every time the specified target behaviour occurs during the observation period."},{"text":"only the first time","correct":false,"explanation":"Limiting the record to the first occurrence would not provide an accurate frequency count. Event sampling records every time the target behaviour occurs throughout the observation."},{"text":"at the final interval","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording at an interval confuses event sampling with time sampling and would omit most occurrences. Event sampling records every time the target behaviour occurs during the observation."}]},{"id":"30fcc5ab-295e-4053-8157-4a1beba845d7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What kind of behaviour is event sampling best suited to?","back":"A discrete event with a clear beginning and end.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A discrete event with a clear beginning and end.","correct":true,"explanation":"Event sampling works best when each occurrence can be identified and counted separately. Clear start and end points allow observers to distinguish one event from the next reliably."},{"text":"A continuous behaviour with no clear beginning or end.","correct":false,"explanation":"Continuous behaviour is difficult to divide into separate countable occurrences, making event sampling unsuitable. The method works best for a discrete event with a clear beginning and end."},{"text":"A private mental state that cannot be directly observed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Private mental states cannot be recorded directly and require operationalised behavioural indicators. Event sampling is best suited to a discrete, observable event with a clear beginning and end."},{"text":"A general impression formed across the whole observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A general impression is subjective and cannot be counted as separate occurrences. Event sampling requires a clearly operationalised, discrete event with an identifiable beginning and end."}]},{"id":"d8222e58-04cd-4990-a12a-5dccce054c6d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which research aim best fits event sampling?","back":"Finding how often a behaviour occurs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Finding how often a behaviour occurs.","correct":true,"explanation":"Event sampling records every occurrence of the target behaviour, allowing researchers to calculate its frequency. It therefore directly answers a research aim concerning how often behaviour occurs."},{"text":"Finding how long a behaviour continues.","correct":false,"explanation":"This aim concerns duration, which simple event sampling does not record effectively. Event sampling is designed primarily to establish how often a clearly defined behaviour occurs."},{"text":"Finding what surrounds a behaviour when it occurs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This aim focuses on context rather than frequency. Event sampling chiefly counts each occurrence, so it best answers a question about how often the target behaviour happens."},{"text":"Finding what happens at each set interval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording what happens at predetermined intervals describes time sampling. Event sampling instead records every occurrence and is therefore best for finding how often a behaviour occurs."}]},{"id":"78fe1462-8f87-4a99-85b2-1aa86ea6e3f4","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can event sampling be difficult when lots happens at once?","back":"The observer may miss events.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The observer may miss events.","correct":true,"explanation":"When several behaviours occur simultaneously or in rapid succession, the observer’s attention and recording capacity may be overloaded. Some target events can therefore go unnoticed or unrecorded."},{"text":"The observer must stop the observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Simultaneous activity does not require the observation to be stopped. The genuine difficulty is that limited attention may cause the observer to miss some target events."},{"text":"The participants will change their behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants changing their behaviour because they are watched is observer reactivity, not a necessary result of many events occurring together. The observer is more likely to miss events."},{"text":"The events become impossible to operationalise.","correct":false,"explanation":"Operational definitions can still be created when many events occur. The practical problem is that simultaneous or rapid events may exceed the observer’s ability to notice and record them all."}]},{"id":"14424ce8-2e86-4eae-bdc7-164c7f6297b5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does event sampling record less well than frequency?","back":"Duration or context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Duration or context.","correct":true,"explanation":"Event sampling provides a count of occurrences but may not show how long each event lasts or the circumstances surrounding it. Extra recording procedures are needed for duration and context."},{"text":"Frequency or count.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frequency is the main strength of event sampling because every occurrence is counted. The method records duration or contextual information less effectively unless additional details are collected."},{"text":"Whether events occur.","correct":false,"explanation":"Event sampling directly records whether target events occur and how many times they happen. What it captures less effectively is each event’s duration or surrounding context."},{"text":"Separate event occurrences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Distinguishing and counting separate occurrences is precisely what event sampling is designed to do. It records how long events last and the context in which they occur less well."}]},{"id":"7df887c6-d608-498f-ba7f-f62e934c8b64","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Time sampling records behaviour at [ ], such as every 30 seconds.","back":"Time sampling records behaviour at set time intervals, such as every 30 seconds.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"set time intervals","correct":true,"explanation":"Time sampling involves observing or recording behaviour at predetermined moments, such as every 30 seconds. Using consistent intervals makes observations manageable and allows results to be compared."},{"text":"every behavioural event","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording every occurrence of a target behaviour describes event sampling. Time sampling instead records behaviour at set time intervals, regardless of when individual events begin."},{"text":"the end of each event","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on event endings still organises recording around occurrences of behaviour rather than time. Time sampling requires observations at set time intervals such as every 30 seconds."},{"text":"whenever behaviour changes","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording whenever behaviour changes does not use a fixed temporal schedule and could produce inconsistent observations. Time sampling records behaviour at set time intervals determined in advance."}]},{"id":"e656144a-b232-4eff-b8a8-581b1d72ac8e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What kind of behaviour is time sampling best suited to?","back":"Ongoing states rather than single events.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ongoing states rather than single events.","correct":true,"explanation":"Time sampling works best for behaviours that last for a while, because repeated checks can capture whether the state is present at sampled points."},{"text":"Rare events rather than ongoing states.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rare or brief events are more likely to be missed if they do not occur at a sampling point. Time sampling is best for ongoing states rather than single events."},{"text":"Sudden actions rather than ongoing states.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sudden actions can occur and finish between sampling points, so time sampling may not record them. It is better suited to ongoing states that persist over time."},{"text":"Single events rather than ongoing states.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual distinction. Single events are better captured by event sampling, while time sampling is best for ongoing states."}]},{"id":"777a3b60-71e0-4ed2-acc1-caa8f1eeb6cd","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Instantaneous time sampling records what is happening at the [ ] the interval occurs.","back":"Instantaneous time sampling records what is happening at the exact moment the interval occurs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"exact moment","correct":true,"explanation":"Instantaneous time sampling records behaviour at the precise point when the sampling interval occurs, not across the whole interval."},{"text":"moment before","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording just before the interval would shift the observation point and could capture different behaviour. Instantaneous time sampling uses the exact moment the interval occurs."},{"text":"moment after","correct":false,"explanation":"Recording after the interval is a timing error, because the behaviour may already have changed. The correct point is the exact moment the interval occurs."},{"text":"average point","correct":false,"explanation":"Averaging suggests judging behaviour across a period, which is not instantaneous sampling. The method records what is happening at the exact moment the interval occurs."}]},{"id":"334aba93-2974-489e-9a1b-350e8f85d71e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can time sampling miss brief behaviours?","back":"They may occur between intervals.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may occur between intervals.","correct":true,"explanation":"Brief behaviours can happen and end before the next sampling point, so the observer never records them. This is a key limitation of time sampling."},{"text":"They may occur during intervals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Happening during the observation period is not the problem by itself. The issue is that brief behaviours may occur between intervals and be missed completely."},{"text":"They may occur after recording.","correct":false,"explanation":"This focuses on events after the observation rather than the sampling design. Time sampling misses brief behaviours when they occur between intervals."},{"text":"They may occur before coding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Coding is how behaviour is categorised, not the timing problem. Brief behaviours are missed because they may occur between intervals."}]},{"id":"679303fd-61f2-463c-bde6-904e019fb0c9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the problem with very long time-sampling intervals?","back":"They may miss too much detail.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may miss too much detail.","correct":true,"explanation":"Long intervals leave large gaps between observations, so changes in behaviour can be lost. This reduces the amount of detail captured in the record."},{"text":"They may record too much detail.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is the opposite of the usual problem. Very long intervals reduce how often behaviour is checked, so they may miss too much detail."},{"text":"They may create too much data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Longer intervals normally produce fewer observations, not too much data. The problem is that they may miss too much behavioural detail."},{"text":"They may increase too much accuracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accuracy is not increased simply by spacing observations further apart. Very long time-sampling intervals risk missing too much detail between observations."}]},{"id":"430ba88c-3d4a-4e15-b80e-590450e39f7a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reliability means [ ]; validity means measuring what the study [ ].","back":"Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring what the study claims to measure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring what the study claims to measure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reliability is about getting consistent results or observations. Validity is about whether the measure truly captures the construct the study says it is measuring."},{"text":"Reliability means accuracy; validity means measuring what the study claims to measure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accuracy is closer to validity than reliability, so this confuses the two ideas. Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring what the study claims to measure."},{"text":"Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring what the study measures repeatedly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Measuring something repeatedly relates to reliability, not validity. Validity means measuring what the study claims to measure, while reliability means consistency."},{"text":"Reliability means objectivity; validity means measuring what the study can replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity and replication can support good research, but they do not define these terms. Reliability means consistency; validity means measuring what the study claims to measure."}]},{"id":"f8847ad3-0906-48eb-9b97-a0dbb1f1a65f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do clear behavioural categories improve reliability?","back":"Different observers record behaviour consistently.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Different observers record behaviour consistently.","correct":true,"explanation":"Clear categories reduce ambiguity, so different observers are more likely to classify the same behaviour in the same way. That improves inter-observer reliability."},{"text":"Different observers record behaviour accurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accuracy is more closely linked to validity than reliability. Clear behavioural categories mainly improve reliability because different observers record behaviour consistently."},{"text":"Different observers record behaviour quickly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Speed may make observation easier, but it is not what reliability means. Clear categories improve reliability by helping different observers record behaviour consistently."},{"text":"Different observers record behaviour privately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether observers record privately does not ensure agreement. Clear behavioural categories improve reliability because different observers can record behaviour consistently."}]},{"id":"9f15b5ad-98d9-4666-86a3-497504557d46","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might measuring anxiety only by nail-biting be invalid even if reliable?","back":"

May miss other anxious behaviours.
May count non-anxious nail-biters.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

May miss other anxious behaviours.
May count non-anxious nail-biters.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The measure is too narrow and can also include people whose nail-biting is not caused by anxiety. That means it may not validly measure anxiety."},{"text":"

May include every anxious behaviour.
May exclude non-anxious nail-biters.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Those features would make the measure more valid, not less. The real problem is that it may miss other anxious behaviours and count non-anxious nail-biters."},{"text":"

May create poor observer agreement.
May reduce recording consistency.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Poor agreement and inconsistent recording are reliability problems, but the question says the measure may still be reliable. The validity issue is missing anxious behaviours and counting non-anxious nail-biters."},{"text":"

May miss other nail behaviours.
May count anxious non-biters.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The target construct is anxiety, not nail behaviour generally. A nail-biting-only measure is invalid because it may miss other anxious behaviours and include non-anxious nail-biters."}]},{"id":"c25a28c2-22e7-4414-a96d-7702fcd45142","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does observer bias threaten observational data?","back":"Expectations influence what the observer notices or records.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Expectations influence what the observer notices or records.","correct":true,"explanation":"Observer bias occurs when expectations shape attention or interpretation. This can distort the data because the observer may notice or record behaviour selectively."},{"text":"Participants influence what the observer notices or records.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participant effects can threaten data, but observer bias specifically comes from the observer’s expectations. The correct issue is that expectations influence what the observer notices or records."},{"text":"Instructions influence what the observer notices or records.","correct":false,"explanation":"Instructions may affect standardisation, but observer bias is specifically about expectations shaping observation. Expectations influence what the observer notices or records."},{"text":"Equipment limits what the observer notices or records.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equipment limitations can affect data quality, but that is not observer bias. Observer bias occurs when expectations influence what the observer notices or records."}]},{"id":"bbe0e0e2-3b02-4853-bfe9-b3500fed1931","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is right to withdraw harder in covert naturalistic observations?","back":"Participants may not know they are involved.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants may not know they are involved.","correct":true,"explanation":"Covert observation conceals the research from participants, so they cannot exercise their right to withdraw because they do not realise they are taking part."},{"text":"Participants may be required to remain in the setting.","correct":false,"explanation":"Naturalistic observation does not require participants to remain in the setting. Withdrawal is harder because covert participants do not know they are involved in research."},{"text":"Participants may have already given informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Giving informed consent would make participants aware of the study and their withdrawal rights. The difficulty arises because covert participants may not know they are involved."},{"text":"Participants may be told withdrawal will invalidate results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researchers should not pressure participants by claiming withdrawal would invalidate results. In covert observation, the central problem is that participants may not know they are involved."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Observational design","title":"Observational design Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"b35eeffc-4bec-5eed-916f-a6140a4ff7e7","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]