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respectfully and safely, with proper regard for participants’ rights and welfare."},{"text":"Hypotheses","correct":false,"explanation":"Hypotheses are testable predictions about relationships between variables, not moral principles. Ethics guide researchers in protecting participants and conducting research responsibly, respectfully and safely."},{"text":"Variables","correct":false,"explanation":"Variables are factors that can change or be measured in a study, not moral principles. Ethics provide the standards for responsible, respectful and safe research."},{"text":"Procedures","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedures are the steps followed when carrying out a study, rather than its moral principles. Ethics guide decisions about participants’ rights, welfare and safety."}]},{"id":"252d6f80-59f0-445b-a9bf-91293eaab0be","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An [ ] is a conflict between research aims and participants' rights or welfare.","back":"An ethical issue is a conflict between research aims and participants' rights or welfare.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"ethical issue","correct":true,"explanation":"An ethical issue arises when achieving a research aim may conflict with participants’ rights or welfare, requiring the researcher to balance scientific value against possible risks."},{"text":"methodological issue","correct":false,"explanation":"A methodological issue concerns how a study is designed or conducted, such as controlling variables. A conflict involving participants’ rights or welfare is an ethical issue."},{"text":"practical issue","correct":false,"explanation":"A practical issue concerns matters such as time, cost, access or resources. A conflict between research aims and participants’ rights or welfare is an ethical issue."},{"text":"sampling issue","correct":false,"explanation":"A sampling issue concerns how participants are selected and whether the sample is representative. A conflict involving their rights or welfare is an ethical issue."}]},{"id":"b6f19aa6-eab5-479e-9e18-184b508aac9a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the British Psychological Society code's main role in ethical decision-making?","back":"A framework for weighing research value against participant risks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A framework for weighing research value against participant risks.","correct":true,"explanation":"The BPS code supports ethical decision-making by helping psychologists balance a study’s potential value against risks to participants’ rights, dignity, safety and welfare."},{"text":"A legal rule for eliminating every possible participant risk.","correct":false,"explanation":"The BPS code provides professional ethical guidance rather than a rule requiring all risk to disappear. It helps weigh research value against proportionate participant risks."},{"text":"A procedure for ensuring all psychological findings are valid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity is primarily a methodological concern, although ethics can affect study design. The code’s main role is balancing research value against risks to participants."},{"text":"A system for prioritising research aims over participant welfare.","correct":false,"explanation":"The code does not place research aims above welfare. It provides a framework for weighing a study’s value against risks while protecting participants’ rights."}]},{"id":"c226d438-ce3f-4c03-8f62-290bb2212dfb","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The BPS principle of [ ] covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; [ ] covers managing risks and harm.","back":"The BPS principle of respect covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; responsibility covers managing risks and harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The BPS principle of respect covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; responsibility covers managing risks and harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Respect protects participants’ dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights, while responsibility requires psychologists to anticipate, assess and manage potential risks or harm arising from their work."},{"text":"The BPS principle of integrity covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; responsibility covers managing risks and harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Integrity concerns honesty, accuracy, openness and managing deception, not primarily dignity and autonomy. Respect covers those rights, while responsibility covers risks and harm."},{"text":"The BPS principle of respect covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; competence covers managing risks and harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competence concerns psychologists having appropriate skills, training and supervision. Respect covers dignity and rights, while responsibility is the principle focused on managing risks and harm."},{"text":"The BPS principle of competence covers dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights; integrity covers managing risks and harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competence concerns suitable expertise, and integrity concerns honesty and accuracy. Respect covers dignity and rights, while responsibility covers the management of risks and harm."}]},{"id":"11e13253-fa8f-4793-98da-f9302eca1db2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which BPS principle requires suitable skills, training and supervision?","back":"Competence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Competence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Competence requires psychologists to possess appropriate knowledge and skills, recognise the limits of their expertise, and obtain suitable training or supervision when necessary."},{"text":"Respect.","correct":false,"explanation":"Respect concerns dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights rather than professional expertise. Competence requires researchers to have appropriate skills, training and supervision."},{"text":"Responsibility.","correct":false,"explanation":"Responsibility focuses on anticipating and managing risks and harm. Competence is the principle requiring appropriate skills, training, expertise and supervision."},{"text":"Integrity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Integrity concerns honesty, accuracy, openness and the proper management of deception. Competence is the principle concerned with suitable skills, training and supervision."}]},{"id":"7142bec3-ac7f-4b6f-8498-f47e81cbbf8e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which BPS principle requires honesty, accuracy and properly managed deception?","back":"Integrity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Integrity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Integrity requires psychologists to be honest, accurate and open in their professional work, including ensuring that any necessary deception is justified and properly managed."},{"text":"Respect.","correct":false,"explanation":"Respect protects dignity, privacy, autonomy and rights, but it is not primarily about truthfulness. Integrity requires honesty, accuracy and the proper management of deception."},{"text":"Competence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competence concerns possessing suitable knowledge, skills, training and supervision. Integrity is the BPS principle that requires honesty, accuracy and properly managed deception."},{"text":"Responsibility.","correct":false,"explanation":"Responsibility concerns anticipating and managing risks or harm arising from psychological work. Integrity specifically covers honesty, accuracy, openness and the management of deception."}]},{"id":"cd5fff49-b960-4b24-82b2-4d7830a29c57","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means voluntary agreement after enough information about aims, procedures, risks and data use.","back":"Informed consent means voluntary agreement after enough information about aims, procedures, risks and data use.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Informed consent","correct":true,"explanation":"Informed consent is participants’ voluntary agreement to take part after receiving sufficient information about the study’s aims, procedures, possible risks and intended use of data."},{"text":"Debriefing","correct":false,"explanation":"Debriefing occurs after participation and explains the study, including any deception. Informed consent is the voluntary agreement given after receiving sufficient relevant information beforehand."},{"text":"Confidentiality","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality concerns protecting participants’ personal information and controlling its disclosure. Informed consent is their voluntary agreement after being told enough about the proposed research."},{"text":"Protection from harm","correct":false,"explanation":"Protection from harm requires risks to be minimised and not exceed acceptable levels. Informed consent is voluntary agreement based on adequate information about participation and data use."}]},{"id":"45d641d8-f156-44ff-83f4-781ba9d68d55","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can fully explaining a study's aim threaten validity?","back":"It can create demand characteristics that change behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can create demand characteristics that change behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Knowing the true aim may reveal the expected behaviour, causing participants to alter their responses. These demand characteristics reduce validity because behaviour becomes less natural."},{"text":"It can create participant variables that change behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participant variables are pre-existing individual differences, such as age or personality, and are not created by revealing the aim. Full disclosure can instead create demand characteristics."},{"text":"It can create order effects that change behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Order effects arise from completing multiple conditions in sequence, producing fatigue or practice. Explaining the aim threatens validity by creating demand characteristics instead."},{"text":"It can create sampling bias that change behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling bias results from selecting an unrepresentative sample, not from explaining a study’s aim. Revealing the aim can create demand characteristics that alter participants’ behaviour."}]},{"id":"d00eae34-613b-442e-bd41-8a94c7b2ea06","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"When is deception not automatically unethical?","back":"When it is justified, carefully managed and followed by a debrief.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When it is justified, carefully managed and followed by a debrief.","correct":true,"explanation":"Deception may be ethically acceptable when it is necessary for valid research, risks are controlled, and participants are later told the truth through a thorough debrief."},{"text":"When it is minor, used with adults and followed by payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither adulthood nor payment makes deception ethical. It must be justified and carefully managed, with a debrief explaining the study and deception afterwards."},{"text":"When it is convincing, kept secret and approved by the researcher.","correct":false,"explanation":"Effective deception is not automatically ethical, and researcher approval alone is insufficient. It must be justified, carefully managed and followed by an appropriate debrief."},{"text":"When it is temporary, causes surprise and produces valid results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientific validity does not by itself override participants’ ethical rights. Deception is acceptable only when justified, carefully managed and followed by a suitable debrief."}]},{"id":"d6791e80-12de-45c7-bb80-ae0707a57c25","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does deception reduce fully informed consent?","back":"Participants lack important information when agreeing to take part.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants lack important information when agreeing to take part.","correct":true,"explanation":"Fully informed consent requires participants to know relevant details before agreeing. Deception withholds or misrepresents important information, preventing their consent from being completely informed."},{"text":"Participants lack financial payment when agreeing to take part.","correct":false,"explanation":"Payment is not required for consent to be fully informed. Deception reduces informed consent because participants lack important information when deciding whether to participate."},{"text":"Participants lack research experience when agreeing to take part.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants do not need previous research experience to provide informed consent. The problem is that deception denies them important information needed to make an informed decision."},{"text":"Participants lack complete anonymity when agreeing to take part.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anonymity concerns whether data can be linked to identities, not whether consent is informed. Deception weakens consent by withholding important information about participation."}]},{"id":"537016eb-de86-4fa3-a21f-8c69938179ac","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave [ ] and, where possible, withdraw their [ ] afterwards.","back":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave at any point and, where possible, withdraw their data afterwards.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave at any point and, where possible, withdraw their data afterwards.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants must be free to stop participating at any stage without penalty and should, where practicable, also be allowed to request removal of their collected data."},{"text":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave after the procedure and, where possible, withdraw their data afterwards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricting withdrawal until after the procedure removes meaningful choice during the study. Participants should be able to leave at any point and later withdraw their data where possible."},{"text":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave at any point and, where possible, withdraw their consent form afterwards.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right applies to removing collected data, not merely retrieving consent paperwork. Participants can leave at any point and, where possible, withdraw their data afterwards."},{"text":"The right to withdraw means participants can leave with the researcher’s permission and, where possible, withdraw their payment afterwards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal must not depend on the researcher’s permission, and it concerns participants’ data rather than payment. They may leave at any point and request data removal where possible."}]},{"id":"dd4637ed-3f77-4fd1-8457-ba09bde9c774","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Milgram's verbal prods weaken the right to withdraw?","back":"They pressured participants to continue.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They pressured participants to continue.","correct":true,"explanation":"Milgram’s standardised verbal prods made stopping more difficult by applying authority pressure, so participants were not entirely free to exercise their right to withdraw."},{"text":"They allowed participants to leave early.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prods did not facilitate withdrawal; they encouraged participants to continue when they hesitated. This pressure weakened participants’ freedom to stop the procedure."},{"text":"They prevented participants from being deceived.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prods did not reveal the study’s true purpose or prevent deception. Their ethical significance was that they pressured hesitant participants to continue."},{"text":"They reminded participants about their payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram’s prods focused on insisting that the experiment continue, not on payment. This authoritative pressure compromised participants’ ability to withdraw freely."}]},{"id":"08370339-7f55-4781-820a-9494f48c3774","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Zimbardo's prison study criticised over protection from harm?","back":"Participants experienced distress as the study escalated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants experienced distress as the study escalated.","correct":true,"explanation":"The simulated prison became increasingly intense, and some participants showed considerable emotional distress. This indicates that they were not adequately protected from psychological harm."},{"text":"Participants experienced boredom as the study continued.","correct":false,"explanation":"The central protection issue was not ordinary boredom but significant distress as the prison situation escalated. Some participants experienced psychological harm beyond everyday expectations."},{"text":"Participants experienced confusion before the study started.","correct":false,"explanation":"The major criticism concerns distress produced as the study escalated, rather than initial confusion. Researchers have a duty to protect participants from excessive psychological harm."},{"text":"Participants experienced embarrassment when the results were published.","correct":false,"explanation":"The main protection-from-harm concern arose during the escalating simulation, when participants experienced distress. It was not primarily embarrassment caused by publication of the findings."}]},{"id":"99f66d92-bd9d-47f2-a556-3aca610794b5","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How is confidentiality different from true anonymity?","back":"

Anonymity: researcher cannot link data to participants.
Confidentiality: researcher knows identities but does not reveal them.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Anonymity: researcher cannot link data to participants.
Confidentiality: researcher knows identities but does not reveal them.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Anonymous data cannot be connected to particular participants, even by the researcher. Confidential data can be connected by the researcher, but identities are protected from disclosure."},{"text":"

Anonymity: researcher knows identities but does not reveal them.
Confidentiality: researcher cannot link data to participants.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two definitions. Anonymity prevents the researcher linking data to individuals, whereas confidentiality means identities are known but not disclosed."},{"text":"

Anonymity: researcher reveals identities only to other researchers.
Confidentiality: researcher publishes identities with the data.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither principle permits identities to be published casually. Anonymity makes data untraceable to participants, while confidentiality requires known identities to be kept private."},{"text":"

Anonymity: researcher replaces names after analysing the data.
Confidentiality: researcher never collects identifying information.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Replacing names does not ensure true anonymity if the researcher can still make links. Confidentiality applies when identities are known but protected from disclosure."}]},{"id":"070f580c-3538-403d-9791-8fbcb04e0ab5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can researchers use instead of names to protect confidentiality?","back":"ID numbers or pseudonyms.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"ID numbers or pseudonyms.","correct":true,"explanation":"Replacing names with participant codes or invented names reduces the risk of identities being revealed when data are stored, analysed or reported."},{"text":"Consent forms or debriefs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consent forms and debriefs serve other ethical purposes but may contain identifying information. Researchers protect confidentiality in datasets and reports using ID numbers or pseudonyms."},{"text":"Real names or signatures.","correct":false,"explanation":"Real names and signatures directly identify participants and therefore increase confidentiality risks. ID numbers or pseudonyms should be used in data records and reports instead."},{"text":"Job titles or addresses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Job titles and addresses may allow individuals to be identified, especially in small samples. ID numbers or pseudonyms provide safer substitutes for participants’ names."}]},{"id":"94242ad8-af41-4305-8d45-fd207a7498c2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"After deception, what should a debrief explain?","back":"The study's true aims and any deception.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The study's true aims and any deception.","correct":true,"explanation":"A debrief should correct participants’ understanding by revealing the genuine purpose of the research and explaining how and why they were deceived."},{"text":"The study's raw results and any predictions.","correct":false,"explanation":"A debrief does not primarily require raw results or every prediction. After deception, it should reveal the study’s true aims and explain the deception used."},{"text":"The study's payment rates and any expenses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Payment and expenses may be practical matters, but they do not correct misleading information. The debrief must explain the true aims and any deception."},{"text":"The study's sample size and any variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Methodological details such as sample size and variables are not the essential ethical correction. Participants should be told the true aims and the nature of any deception."}]},{"id":"0e0455a8-58bc-4a8d-bfb3-d28e85b91150","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can a debrief fail to remove an ethical problem?","back":"It may not undo serious distress already caused.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may not undo serious distress already caused.","correct":true,"explanation":"Debriefing can explain the study and offer support, but it cannot necessarily reverse significant psychological harm that participants have already experienced."},{"text":"It may not undo sampling bias already introduced.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling bias is a methodological problem rather than harm that debriefing is intended to resolve. A debrief may fail ethically because serious distress already caused cannot necessarily be undone."},{"text":"It may not remove demand characteristics from the results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics concern the validity of participants’ responses, not the lasting ethical effects of a study. Debriefing may fail because it cannot necessarily undo serious distress already caused."},{"text":"It may not improve the reliability of measurements taken.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability concerns the consistency of measurements and is not the relevant ethical limitation. Debriefing cannot necessarily reverse serious distress that participants have already experienced."}]},{"id":"6a3a65da-a2ec-492d-aa82-c752c18e6ae9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Before a study, what usually reviews aims, risks, consent, data handling and debrief plans?","back":"An ethics committee.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An ethics committee.","correct":true,"explanation":"An ethics committee assesses whether the proposed methods adequately address consent, risk, confidentiality, data handling, withdrawal and debriefing before the research begins."},{"text":"An academic peer-review panel.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer review primarily evaluates academic quality and suitability for publication. An ethics committee specifically examines proposed aims, risks, consent procedures, data handling and debriefing plans."},{"text":"An institutional funding body.","correct":false,"explanation":"A funding body decides whether research merits financial support, although it may require ethical approval. The detailed ethical review is normally conducted by an ethics committee."},{"text":"An independent replication team.","correct":false,"explanation":"A replication team repeats research to test whether findings are reliable; it does not normally authorise the original study. An ethics committee reviews the plans before research begins."}]},{"id":"93348891-d977-4657-a02e-808482da13d4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What ethical problem occurs if researchers pressure someone to take part or continue?","back":"Coercion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Coercion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Coercion occurs when pressure, threats or excessive influence undermine a person’s freedom to choose whether to participate or exercise the right to withdraw."},{"text":"Deception.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deception involves misleading participants or withholding relevant information, not pressuring them to participate. Pressure that undermines a voluntary decision is specifically called coercion."},{"text":"Invasion of privacy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Invasion of privacy involves observing or accessing personal information without appropriate permission. Pressure to take part or remain in a study is coercion."},{"text":"Lack of confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lack of confidentiality occurs when identifiable participant information is improperly disclosed. Applying pressure that limits free choice about participation or withdrawal is coercion."}]},{"id":"8e34f268-0e15-45ca-bee6-1683e5e9dc3f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In [ ], participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in [ ], they are asked after full information.","back":"In prior general consent, participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in retrospective consent, they are asked after full information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In prior general consent, participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in retrospective consent, they are asked after full information.","correct":true,"explanation":"Prior general consent secures advance agreement to some withheld details, whereas retrospective consent is requested after participants receive complete information about what occurred."},{"text":"In presumptive consent, participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in retrospective consent, they are asked after full information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Presumptive consent is obtained from a comparable group rather than the actual participants beforehand. Prior general consent describes participants agreeing in advance to undisclosed details; retrospective consent follows full disclosure."},{"text":"In prior general consent, participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in informed consent, they are asked after full information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Informed consent is normally obtained before participation with relevant information already provided. Consent sought afterward, once hidden details have been fully explained, is retrospective consent."},{"text":"In retrospective consent, participants agree before hidden details are revealed; in prior general consent, they are asked after full information.","correct":false,"explanation":"The terms have been reversed: prior general consent is given before participation despite some hidden details, while retrospective consent is requested afterward following complete disclosure."}]},{"id":"c6c424dc-c89e-4b80-a45d-30735b3f90b0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which consent solution asks a similar group whether the procedure seems acceptable?","back":"Presumptive consent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Presumptive consent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Presumptive consent involves asking people similar to the intended participants whether they would consider the proposed procedure acceptable, allowing researchers to estimate likely consent."},{"text":"Retrospective consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Retrospective consent is obtained from the actual participants after they receive full information. Asking a comparable group whether a procedure is acceptable is presumptive consent."},{"text":"Prior general consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prior general consent involves the actual participants agreeing beforehand to take part despite some undisclosed details. Consulting a similar group instead is presumptive consent."},{"text":"Fully informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fully informed consent requires actual participants to receive relevant details before choosing to participate. Asking a similar group to judge acceptability is presumptive consent."}]},{"id":"6724b546-04e3-4bd8-9876-9e8445864c4f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are presumptive and retrospective consent weaker than fully informed consent?","back":"Participants did not know everything at the time of participation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants did not know everything at the time of participation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Neither method gives each actual participant all relevant information before participation, so their decision at that time is less fully informed than standard informed consent."},{"text":"Participants did not receive a debrief after the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"A debrief may still be provided and is especially relevant when information was withheld. The weakness is that participants lacked complete knowledge at the time of participation."},{"text":"Participants were always exposed to greater than everyday risk.","correct":false,"explanation":"These consent methods do not necessarily involve unusually high risk. They are weaker because the actual participants did not possess all relevant information when taking part."},{"text":"Participants could not exercise their right to withdraw afterward.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw can still apply and should be protected independently of the consent method. The weakness is incomplete knowledge at the time of participation."}]},{"id":"64ef75c1-16d3-4dbb-9a25-a0c9317c1d88","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are ethical guidelines a strength for modern psychology?","back":"They protect participants and improve public confidence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They protect participants and improve public confidence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ethical guidelines reduce risks to participants and establish standards for responsible research. This protection helps maintain public trust in psychologists and their work."},{"text":"They guarantee valid findings and eliminate researcher bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethical guidelines cannot guarantee validity or remove every source of researcher bias. Their main strength is protecting participants and thereby improving public confidence in psychology."},{"text":"They remove all deception and prevent every form of distress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Guidelines regulate deception and distress but do not prohibit or prevent them in every case. Their value lies in protecting participants and strengthening public confidence."},{"text":"They increase sample sizes and improve statistical significance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sample size and statistical significance depend on research design, recruitment and data, not ethical guidance. Guidelines are valuable because they protect participants and support public confidence."}]},{"id":"fdd6a699-e5b4-4ff7-88fe-8581a56c4b9e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can avoiding all stressful situations limit psychological research?","back":"It may prevent studying important topics such as obedience or mental health.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may prevent studying important topics such as obedience or mental health.","correct":true,"explanation":"Some socially important behaviours and experiences involve unavoidable discomfort. Prohibiting all stress could prevent research into obedience, mental health and other significant psychological issues."},{"text":"It may prevent studying unrepresentative samples such as volunteers or students.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding stress does not specifically prevent researchers from using volunteers or students, although such samples may be biased. The limitation is losing access to important topics such as obedience or mental health."},{"text":"It may prevent using standardised procedures such as instructions or controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardised instructions and controls can be used in both stressful and non-stressful research. Avoiding every stressful situation instead restricts investigation of important topics such as obedience or mental health."},{"text":"It may prevent collecting quantitative data such as scores or reaction times.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quantitative data can readily be collected without exposing participants to stress. The real limitation is that avoiding all stress may prevent research into important psychological topics."}]},{"id":"a12da324-bcca-4f3c-ad7f-599073ab8d70","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] are wider effects on society, such as risk of [ ] or misuse.","back":"Ethical implications are wider effects on society, such as risk of stigma or misuse.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ethical implications are wider effects on society, such as risk of stigma or misuse.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ethical implications are the broader consequences psychological research may have for individuals or society. These include the possibility that findings could create stigma or be misused."},{"text":"Ethical guidelines are wider effects on society, such as risk of stigma or misuse.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethical guidelines are professional rules intended to protect participants during research, not its wider societal effects. These broader effects, including stigma or misuse, are ethical implications."},{"text":"Ethical implications are wider effects on society, such as risk of deception or misuse.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deception is normally an ethical issue concerning how participants are treated within a study. Wider effects on society are ethical implications, with stigma being a key example."},{"text":"Ethical issues are wider effects on society, such as risk of informed consent or misuse.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethical issues such as informed consent concern participant protection, and informed consent is not itself a societal risk. Ethical implications include wider dangers such as stigma or misuse."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Ethics","title":"Ethics Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"df37159d-a363-50ab-80f3-c0247773a89c","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]