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This coercive use of economic pressure is a form of hard economic power."},{"text":"Soft economic power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Soft economic power would attract others through prosperity or economic appeal rather than impose costs. Sanctions are coercive, so they represent hard economic power."},{"text":"Hard military power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hard military power relies on armed force or the threat of it. Sanctions instead use coercive financial and trading measures, making them hard economic power."},{"text":"Soft cultural power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Soft cultural power shapes preferences through attraction, values and culture. Sanctions deliberately make aggression more expensive, so they are hard economic power."}]},{"id":"6a0769aa-1f51-4d60-b3f4-702e4b585b80","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Influence through attraction, persuasion and legitimacy is what kind of power?","back":"Soft power.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Soft power.","correct":true,"explanation":"Soft power gains influence by making a state’s culture, values or policies attractive and legitimate, encouraging others to cooperate without coercion or payment."},{"text":"Hard power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hard power secures compliance through coercion, including military threats and economic sanctions. Influence based on attraction, persuasion and legitimacy is soft power."},{"text":"Economic power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Economic power refers specifically to influence derived from financial, commercial or productive resources. Attraction and perceived legitimacy are defining features of soft power."},{"text":"Military power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Military power relies on armed capability and the threat or use of force. Persuading others through attraction and legitimacy instead constitutes soft power."}]},{"id":"ee93abe1-48ca-40e8-970c-37d58c585038","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Hard power makes [ ]; soft power makes [ ].","back":"Hard power makes non-compliance costly; soft power makes cooperation attractive.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hard power makes non-compliance costly; soft power makes cooperation attractive.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hard power coerces actors by increasing the penalties for resisting, whereas soft power encourages willing cooperation by making a state’s values, culture or policies appealing."},{"text":"Hard power makes cooperation attractive; soft power makes non-compliance costly.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the distinction between the two forms of power. Hard power makes non-compliance costly, while soft power makes cooperation attractive."},{"text":"Hard power makes non-compliance risk-free; soft power makes cooperation attractive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hard power does not generally make resistance safe because it uses threats, force or sanctions to increase its costs. Soft power correctly seeks to make cooperation attractive."},{"text":"Hard power makes non-compliance costly; soft power makes cooperation compulsory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Soft power works by attracting voluntary cooperation, not by making it compulsory. Hard power makes non-compliance costly, while soft power makes cooperation attractive."}]},{"id":"c8cb2dba-3911-4f90-b30c-dfc0955d0624","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do advanced armed forces and alliances help deterrence?","back":"They threaten retaliation, making attack costly and risky.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They threaten retaliation, making attack costly and risky.","correct":true,"explanation":"Powerful armed forces make retaliation credible, while alliances increase the forces and states an aggressor may face. These consequences make an initial attack costly and risky."},{"text":"They grant legitimacy, making attack lawful and accepted.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deterrence seeks to prevent an attack rather than make it legitimate. Armed strength and alliances work by threatening retaliation, making attack costly and risky."},{"text":"They prevent retaliation, making attack cheap and predictable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deterrence does not depend on removing an adversary’s uncertainty or expense. It threatens credible retaliation so that launching an attack appears costly and risky."},{"text":"They encourage friendship, making attack unlikely but harmless.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diplomatic attraction is associated with soft power rather than military deterrence. Advanced forces and alliances deter by threatening retaliation and making attack costly and risky."}]},{"id":"e9647ab6-72ab-49b5-ae81-eb0221df834a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens to soft power if a state is seen as hypocritical or commits war crimes?","back":"Its credibility is damaged.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Its credibility is damaged.","correct":true,"explanation":"Soft power depends on other actors regarding a state as legitimate and trustworthy. Hypocrisy or war crimes undermine that credibility and reduce the state’s persuasive appeal."},{"text":"Its sovereignty is damaged.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sovereignty means supreme authority over a state’s territory and is not automatically lost through hypocrisy. Such conduct primarily damages soft-power credibility."},{"text":"Its military capability is damaged.","correct":false,"explanation":"Military capability concerns the forces and equipment available to a state and may remain intact despite misconduct. War crimes primarily damage its soft-power credibility."},{"text":"Its economic capacity is damaged.","correct":false,"explanation":"Economic capacity concerns production, trade and financial resources, which are not necessarily reduced by perceptions of hypocrisy. The direct soft-power loss is damaged credibility."}]},{"id":"22a79d2c-3643-4658-85c7-3cc8208d07f2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] has truly global reach; an [ ] has rising influence.","back":"A superpower has truly global reach; an emerging power has rising influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A superpower has truly global reach; an emerging power has rising influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"A superpower can project influence across the world through multiple forms of power. An emerging power is increasing its capabilities and influence but has not reached that status."},{"text":"A regional power has truly global reach; an emerging power has rising influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A regional power is influential mainly within its geographical region, not across the entire world. A state with truly global reach is classified as a superpower."},{"text":"A superpower has truly global reach; an established power has rising influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"An established power has already secured substantial influence, rather than being defined by influence that is still rising. The appropriate term for the latter is emerging power."},{"text":"A middle power has truly global reach; an declining power has rising influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A middle power lacks the worldwide reach that defines a superpower, while a declining power is losing rather than gaining influence. The correct terms are superpower and emerging power."}]},{"id":"36d14907-fbe5-444c-8fd9-663f61926011","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is the USA described as the clearest superpower?","back":"

Global alliances and unmatched military reach.
Dollar reserve-currency role and technology firms.
Cultural influence across regions.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Global alliances and unmatched military reach.
Dollar reserve-currency role and technology firms.
Cultural influence across regions.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The USA combines worldwide military capabilities and alliances with the dollar’s financial importance, technological leadership and extensive cultural appeal. Few states possess comparable strength across all these dimensions."},{"text":"

Belt and Road infrastructure across continents.
Renminbi dominance and manufacturing exports.
Communist ideology across allied regions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are chiefly features associated with China, not the USA. America’s superpower status rests on global alliances, unmatched military reach, the dollar and broad cultural influence."},{"text":"

Regional alliances and limited military reach.
Euro reserve-currency role and EU institutions.
European culture across neighbouring regions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The USA is not militarily confined to North America, and neither the euro nor EU institutions are American resources. Its global military, dollar and cultural strengths explain its status."},{"text":"

Nuclear forces and Eurasian military reach.
Rouble reserve-currency role and energy firms.
Russian media across neighbouring regions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The rouble and state energy firms are primarily Russian sources of influence, while Russian-language media does not explain American power. The USA’s dollar, alliances and culture are central."}]},{"id":"8118bde0-0c3b-4005-953c-e9b8efd32a76","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is BRICS not a unified bloc?","back":"

China and India are rivals.
Russia is heavily sanctioned.
South Africa has limited global reach.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

China and India are rivals.
Russia is heavily sanctioned.
South Africa has limited global reach.

","correct":true,"explanation":"BRICS members have divergent strategic interests and highly unequal global capabilities. Sino-Indian rivalry, sanctions against Russia and South Africa’s limited reach obstruct unified collective action."},{"text":"

BRICS members share one currency.
China controls their central bank.
Brazil sets their common budget.

","correct":false,"explanation":"BRICS has neither a common currency nor a unified central bank, and its members do not share a single fiscal policy. Its disunity instead reflects rivalries and unequal capabilities."},{"text":"

BRICS members share military command.
Russia guarantees collective defence.
India directs their nuclear policy.

","correct":false,"explanation":"BRICS is not a collective-defence alliance and has no integrated military command or joint nuclear doctrine. Its members cooperate selectively while retaining conflicting security interests."},{"text":"

BRICS members share one constitution.
China writes their common laws.
South Africa enforces collective policy.

","correct":false,"explanation":"BRICS members have different political systems and do not operate under Chinese law or a shared constitution. Their lack of unity arises from strategic rivalry and differing interests."}]},{"id":"5d0df876-671f-408a-b692-e731e8a15aa3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is India an emerging power rather than a superpower?","back":"Its global military reach and institutional dominance remain limited.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Its global military reach and institutional dominance remain limited.","correct":true,"explanation":"India has growing economic and regional influence, but it lacks the worldwide military projection and institutional control associated with a superpower."},{"text":"Its economic growth and regional influence remain limited.","correct":false,"explanation":"India has significant economic growth and regional influence; the limiting factors are its global military reach and institutional dominance, which prevent superpower status."},{"text":"Its global military reach and institutional dominance are already extensive.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the key judgement. India’s military and institutional influence are not yet extensive enough globally, so it is better classified as an emerging power."},{"text":"Its regional military reach and economic influence remain limited.","correct":false,"explanation":"India’s regional military and economic influence are substantial. The decisive limitations concern global military reach and institutional dominance, which are necessary for superpower status."}]},{"id":"3ae6cadb-d7d3-4477-a80f-29a8a97bc80d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Polarity means the [ ] in the international system; [ ] has several major centres.","back":"Polarity means the distribution of power in the international system; multipolarity has several major centres.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Polarity means the distribution of power in the international system; multipolarity has several major centres.","correct":true,"explanation":"Polarity describes how power is distributed among states, while multipolarity specifically refers to an international system containing several significant centres of power."},{"text":"Polarity means the concentration of power in the international system; bipolarity has several major centres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Polarity concerns the distribution of power, not simply its concentration, and bipolarity has two major centres rather than several. The correct second term is multipolarity."},{"text":"Polarity means the distribution of power in the international system; unipolarity has several major centres.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first definition is correct, but unipolarity describes one dominant centre of power. Several major centres indicate multipolarity, not unipolarity."},{"text":"Polarity means the balance of power in the international system; tripolarity has several major centres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Balance of power is a related theory and policy idea, but polarity means the distribution of power. The standard category for several centres is multipolarity."}]},{"id":"64f5710e-a308-4f3f-b6a3-8c250960e874","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What can a hegemon provide that may stabilise unipolarity?","back":"Public goods such as open trade routes and security guarantees.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Public goods such as open trade routes and security guarantees.","correct":true,"explanation":"A hegemon can support stability by providing widely available benefits, including open trade routes and security guarantees, which reduce uncertainty and encourage cooperation."},{"text":"Private goods such as closed trade routes and security guarantees.","correct":false,"explanation":"Open trade routes are public goods because many states can benefit from them, whereas closed routes restrict access. The correct answer identifies public goods: open trade routes and security guarantees."},{"text":"Public goods such as open trade routes and economic sanctions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sanctions are coercive measures imposed on targeted states, not broadly available public goods. A hegemon may stabilise unipolarity by providing security guarantees alongside open trade routes."},{"text":"Collective goods such as restricted trade routes and military competition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricted trade and military competition tend to undermine stability rather than provide shared benefits. The relevant public goods are open trade routes and security guarantees."}]},{"id":"f5281e25-56f7-4e50-a644-1cdd51bfd553","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did the 2003 Iraq War show about US unipolar power?","back":"It damaged US legitimacy and exposed limits of unilateral power.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It damaged US legitimacy and exposed limits of unilateral power.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Iraq War weakened perceptions of US legitimacy and demonstrated that even a dominant state faced political, military and diplomatic limits when acting unilaterally."},{"text":"It strengthened US legitimacy and exposed limits of multilateral power.","correct":false,"explanation":"The war generally damaged rather than strengthened US legitimacy, while its central lesson concerned the limits of unilateral power. Multilateral power was not the main issue shown."},{"text":"It damaged UN legitimacy and exposed limits of unilateral power.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although the conflict affected views of international institutions, the key impact was damage to US legitimacy and exposure of the limits of unilateral US action."},{"text":"It strengthened US legitimacy and demonstrated the success of unilateral power.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the historical interpretation. The war generated legitimacy costs and showed that unilateral action could produce serious strategic and political difficulties."}]},{"id":"dd217d34-8126-44e0-9b45-98fed721cd09","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The Cold War was [ ] because two dominant powers led rival blocs.","back":"The Cold War was bipolar because two dominant powers led rival blocs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"bipolar","correct":true,"explanation":"The Cold War was bipolar because the United States and Soviet Union were the two dominant powers, each leading a rival ideological and military bloc."},{"text":"unipolar","correct":false,"explanation":"Unipolarity means one dominant power, whereas the Cold War involved two opposing superpowers. The correct term is bipolar because power was concentrated in two blocs."},{"text":"multipolar","correct":false,"explanation":"Multipolarity involves several major power centres. The Cold War is described as bipolar because the United States and Soviet Union dominated rival blocs."},{"text":"tripolar","correct":false,"explanation":"Tripolarity would imply three dominant power centres, but the Cold War’s central structure was organised around two superpowers and their competing blocs."}]},{"id":"228c7366-d5b5-417f-9f7c-ac87e61358bf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can bipolarity discourage direct war?","back":"The main rival is clear and nuclear deterrence raises the cost.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The main rival is clear and nuclear deterrence raises the cost.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bipolarity makes the principal opponent easier to identify, while nuclear deterrence makes direct conflict extremely costly, encouraging both sides to avoid a full-scale war."},{"text":"The main rival is unclear and nuclear deterrence raises the cost.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nuclear deterrence can raise the cost of war, but bipolarity makes the main rival relatively clear. The correct answer combines clear rivalry with deterrence."},{"text":"The main rival is clear and economic interdependence lowers the cost.","correct":false,"explanation":"Economic interdependence is not the key mechanism in this explanation, and lowering the cost would not discourage war. Nuclear deterrence raises the cost of direct conflict."},{"text":"The main rivals are numerous and nuclear deterrence raises the cost.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nuclear deterrence does raise the cost of war, but bipolarity is defined by two principal rivals rather than numerous rivals. Clear opposition helps crisis calculations."}]},{"id":"3581f1e7-c2f9-40fd-b5e3-d86f38b2ffe6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What danger can multipolarity create for crisis management?","back":"Greater uncertainty, miscalculation and weaker collective action.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Greater uncertainty, miscalculation and weaker collective action.","correct":true,"explanation":"With several significant powers, intentions and alliances may be harder to judge, increasing uncertainty and miscalculation while making coordinated collective action more difficult."},{"text":"Greater certainty, miscalculation and stronger collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multipolarity generally makes intentions and alliances less certain, not more certain, and can weaken collective action. The correct danger is greater uncertainty, miscalculation and weaker cooperation."},{"text":"Greater uncertainty, deterrence and stronger collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"Uncertainty is a genuine multipolar danger, but deterrence and stronger collective action do not complete the answer. The risks are miscalculation and weaker collective action."},{"text":"Greater stability, miscalculation and weaker collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multipolarity may create instability rather than guaranteed stability because multiple actors can misread one another. The correct first term is uncertainty, alongside miscalculation and weaker action."}]},{"id":"db7212f7-c62b-49c9-8398-13e2d81ce7b9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from [ ] toward a more [ ] pattern.","back":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from US unipolarity toward a more multipolar pattern.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from US unipolarity toward a more multipolar pattern.","correct":true,"explanation":"Since 2000, the relative rise of powers such as China, India and Russia has challenged US predominance, producing movement away from unipolarity toward a more multipolar order."},{"text":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from US unipolarity toward a more bipolar pattern.","correct":false,"explanation":"The United States remains important, but the emerging pattern involves several significant power centres rather than only two. The correct description is a shift toward multipolarity."},{"text":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from Russian unipolarity toward a more multipolar pattern.","correct":false,"explanation":"Russia did not establish the post-Cold War unipolar order. The shift has been away from US unipolarity, as other major powers have gained influence."},{"text":"Since 2000, world order has shifted away from US bipolarity toward a more unipolar pattern.","correct":false,"explanation":"The post-Cold War order was commonly described as US-led and unipolar, while recent developments point toward greater multipolarity. Both terms in this option reverse that trend."}]},{"id":"e702570f-77fd-4af4-8b32-ea20cd163985","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which development is shown by Russia in Ukraine and China around Taiwan?","back":"A return of spheres of influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A return of spheres of influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Russia’s actions in Ukraine and China’s pressure around Taiwan show major powers seeking dominant influence over neighbouring regions, characteristic of a return to spheres of influence."},{"text":"A return of balance-of-power politics.","correct":false,"explanation":"Balance-of-power politics concerns preventing one state from dominating the international system. The examples specifically show powerful states asserting control over particular regions, which indicates spheres of influence."},{"text":"A strengthening of collective security.","correct":false,"explanation":"Collective security involves states working together against aggression through shared institutions. Russia’s and China’s actions instead demonstrate unilateral regional dominance, which is described as spheres of influence."},{"text":"A spread of liberal democracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither Russia’s actions in Ukraine nor China’s policy around Taiwan represents democratic expansion. They show powerful states asserting regional control, a development understood as spheres of influence."}]},{"id":"3a2c6310-28e6-4d42-87ec-fa73cadf294e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means direct agreements between two states rather than action through [ ].","back":"Bilateralism means direct agreements between two states rather than action through multilateral institutions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Bilateralism means direct agreements between two states rather than action through multilateral institutions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bilateralism involves cooperation or agreements between two states directly, rather than working through institutions involving several states, such as the United Nations."},{"text":"Multilateralism means direct agreements between two states rather than action through multilateral institutions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multilateralism involves several states cooperating, often through international institutions. Direct agreements between two states are instead the defining feature of bilateralism."},{"text":"Bilateralism means direct agreements between many states rather than action through multilateral institutions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The defining feature of bilateralism is cooperation between exactly two states. Agreements involving many states are multilateral, particularly when conducted through multilateral institutions."},{"text":"Bilateralism means direct agreements between two states rather than action through national governments.","correct":false,"explanation":"National governments are the actors making bilateral agreements, not an alternative channel to them. The contrast is between direct state-to-state action and action through multilateral institutions."}]},{"id":"3f4c1a27-5468-4aaa-9c89-04b3565d4999","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which state type can produce civil war, terrorism, refugee flows and humanitarian crises by losing control?","back":"A failed state.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A failed state.","correct":true,"explanation":"A failed state has lost effective control over its territory and institutions. This can permit civil war, terrorism and humanitarian emergencies, while also producing refugee flows."},{"text":"A weak state.","correct":false,"explanation":"A weak state has limited capacity but may still retain basic control. The more severe loss of control associated with civil war, terrorism and humanitarian crises describes a failed state."},{"text":"An authoritarian state.","correct":false,"explanation":"An authoritarian state restricts political freedom and concentrates power, but it can retain strong territorial control. Losing control and producing these crises is characteristic of a failed state."},{"text":"A rogue state.","correct":false,"explanation":"A rogue state is labelled for threatening international norms or security, not necessarily for losing domestic control. The state type defined by severe loss of control is a failed state."}]},{"id":"6c865298-2c94-4702-8e1e-3a20fa7e5af8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] supports investment and human rights because power is more [ ].","back":"The rule of law supports investment and human rights because power is more predictable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The rule of law supports investment and human rights because power is more predictable.","correct":true,"explanation":"The rule of law constrains arbitrary power and makes decisions more predictable. This gives investors greater confidence and provides stronger protection for human rights."},{"text":"The balance of power supports investment and human rights because power is more predictable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The balance of power concerns the distribution of power between states, not predictable domestic government decisions. The rule of law makes power more predictable and supports rights and investment."},{"text":"The rule of law supports investment and human rights because power is more concentrated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Concentrated power can encourage arbitrary decisions and weaken rights protections. The rule of law supports investment and human rights because it makes the exercise of power more predictable."},{"text":"The constitutional monarchy supports investment and human rights because power is more predictable.","correct":false,"explanation":"A constitutional monarchy may support stable government, but the principle directly explaining predictable power and legal protection is the rule of law, not the state’s monarchical structure."}]},{"id":"34169798-13fb-4a51-b7d4-28883223deba","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is international law weaker than domestic rule of law?","back":"Enforcement often relies on state consent or great-power agreement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Enforcement often relies on state consent or great-power agreement.","correct":true,"explanation":"International law lacks a single sovereign authority equivalent to a domestic government. Enforcement therefore often depends on states consenting to rules or great powers agreeing to act."},{"text":"Enforcement often relies on popular elections or parliamentary legislation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Elections and parliamentary legislation are domestic mechanisms, not the usual basis of international enforcement. International law instead depends heavily on state consent or great-power agreement."},{"text":"Enforcement often relies on international police or universal prosecution.","correct":false,"explanation":"There is no universally empowered international police force or automatic prosecution system for all violations. Enforcement commonly depends on state consent or agreement among great powers."},{"text":"Enforcement often relies on judicial independence or constitutional review.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial independence and constitutional review help enforce domestic law within states. International law is weaker because enforcement often requires state consent or great-power agreement."}]},{"id":"baec5231-bd80-4032-833f-189f2d6bafdc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shows liberal economies do not automatically create liberal democracy?","back":"China: economic liberalisation without political democracy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"China: economic liberalisation without political democracy.","correct":true,"explanation":"China introduced market-oriented economic reforms while retaining one-party authoritarian rule. This demonstrates that economic liberalisation does not automatically produce political democracy."},{"text":"China: economic liberalisation with political democracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"China’s example is important precisely because economic liberalisation occurred without political democracy. Describing China as a political democracy reverses the relevant relationship."},{"text":"China: political liberalisation without economic liberalisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"China liberalised important parts of its economy but did not introduce equivalent political democratisation. Reversing both developments misses the example used to challenge automatic modernisation."},{"text":"North Korea: economic liberalisation without political democracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"North Korea is not the standard example of extensive economic liberalisation. China demonstrates the point because it combined significant market reforms with continued one-party political rule."}]},{"id":"87975962-0c02-4e18-98f2-454e1bea2dac","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can great-power rivalry block conflict responses?","back":"UN Security Council vetoes can prevent collective action.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"UN Security Council vetoes can prevent collective action.","correct":true,"explanation":"A permanent Security Council member can veto substantive resolutions, blocking an agreed UN response even when other states support collective action against a conflict."},{"text":"UN General Assembly votes can prevent collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"General Assembly resolutions are usually non-binding and do not give individual states the same blocking power. The key obstacle created by great-power rivalry is Security Council vetoes."},{"text":"International Court rulings can prevent collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"International Court rulings concern legal disputes and do not normally determine whether the UN can authorise a collective response. Security Council vetoes can directly block such action."},{"text":"NATO membership rules can prevent collective action.","correct":false,"explanation":"NATO decision-making can affect alliance operations, but it is not the main mechanism by which great-power rivalry blocks wider international conflict responses. Security Council vetoes are."}]},{"id":"30f5310d-f8da-42c6-b89b-e8bbd701838e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] created a climate framework, but pledges are [ ].","back":"The Paris Agreement 2015 created a climate framework, but pledges are nationally determined.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The Paris Agreement 2015 created a climate framework, but pledges are nationally determined.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Paris Agreement established a shared international framework, while each country sets its own nationally determined contribution rather than receiving a centrally imposed target."},{"text":"The Kyoto Protocol 1997 created a climate framework, but pledges are nationally determined.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Kyoto Protocol imposed differentiated targets mainly on developed countries. The framework based on nationally determined contributions is associated with the Paris Agreement 2015."},{"text":"The Paris Agreement 2015 created a climate framework, but pledges are legally enforceable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Paris created a framework and reporting expectations, but countries’ emissions pledges are nationally determined rather than directly enforceable international obligations with imposed targets."},{"text":"The Paris Agreement 2015 created a climate framework, but pledges are centrally imposed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Paris system does not impose identical targets from a central authority. Each state determines its own contribution, which is why the pledges are nationally determined."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-12","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Power and developments","title":"Power and developments Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/politics/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"a8a8aee9-084b-570b-9d98-7e1f947d3272","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]