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through the Human Rights Act 1998."},{"text":"Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).","correct":false,"explanation":"The UDHR is an influential United Nations declaration, but it is not the main enforceable instrument here. The relevant rights principally come from the European Convention on Human Rights."},{"text":"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).","correct":false,"explanation":"The ICCPR is a United Nations treaty protecting civil and political rights, but this topic mainly concerns ECHR rights and their enforcement under the Human Rights Act 1998."},{"text":"Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.","correct":false,"explanation":"The EU Charter belongs to the legal framework of the European Union, which is distinct from the Council of Europe system. The main instrument here is the ECHR."}]},{"id":"09dfb1f8-55ef-4b21-86dc-de1dd70479d5","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most [ ] rights in [ ].","back":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most ECHR rights in UK courts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most ECHR rights in UK courts.","correct":true,"explanation":"The HRA incorporates most ECHR rights into domestic law, allowing claimants to rely on them before UK courts rather than having to seek a remedy only in Strasbourg."},{"text":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most EU Charter rights in UK courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing the ECHR with the EU Charter overlooks that the HRA incorporates Convention rights, not EU Charter rights. Those ECHR rights can generally be relied upon in UK courts."},{"text":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most ECHR rights in EU courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"The HRA provides a domestic route for enforcing most ECHR rights in UK courts. EU courts belong to a separate legal system and are not the route created by the Act."},{"text":"The Human Rights Act 1998 lets people rely on most common law rights in Strasbourg courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Act concerns ECHR rights rather than merely common law rights, and its key effect is to make those rights enforceable in UK courts without first going to Strasbourg."}]},{"id":"052a43e3-f340-412e-a0de-09f812ee4830","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Before the HRA, where did individuals usually need to go for a direct ECHR remedy?","back":"Strasbourg - the European Court of Human Rights.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Strasbourg - the European Court of Human Rights.","correct":true,"explanation":"Before the HRA incorporated most Convention rights into UK law, individuals generally had to apply to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg for a direct ECHR remedy."},{"text":"Luxembourg - the European Court of Justice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Luxembourg is associated with the European Union’s judicial system, not direct ECHR remedies. Before the HRA, individuals generally had to apply to the Strasbourg court."},{"text":"London - the House of Lords.","correct":false,"explanation":"The House of Lords could not generally provide a direct remedy for breach of an unincorporated Convention right. Claimants usually had to proceed to the ECtHR in Strasbourg."},{"text":"Geneva - the United Nations Human Rights Committee.","correct":false,"explanation":"The UN Human Rights Committee deals with the ICCPR rather than the ECHR enforcement system. Direct Convention remedies before the HRA generally required an application to Strasbourg."}]},{"id":"738631f8-387d-40e9-8526-474a6d110308","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which pre-HRA case held the unincorporated ECHR could not be directly enforced in UK courts?","back":"R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Brind (1991).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Brind (1991).","correct":true,"explanation":"Brind confirmed that the unincorporated ECHR was not directly enforceable in domestic courts, although Convention principles could sometimes assist with interpreting ambiguous legislation."},{"text":"R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Simms (2000).","correct":false,"explanation":"Simms concerned the principle of legality and held that fundamental rights require clear statutory words before they can be overridden. The unincorporated ECHR ruling was in Brind."},{"text":"Malone v United Kingdom (1984).","correct":false,"explanation":"Malone v UK was a Strasbourg decision finding an Article 8 breach because telephone tapping lacked sufficient legal regulation. The relevant domestic authority was Brind."},{"text":"Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza (2004).","correct":false,"explanation":"Ghaidan was a post-HRA case about the strong interpretative duty under s3. The pre-HRA authority denying direct domestic enforcement of the ECHR was Brind."}]},{"id":"5866bf60-f0f3-4c95-aa89-7e59e609f968","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Malone v UK find an Article 8 breach?","back":"Phone tapping lacked clear legal regulation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Phone tapping lacked clear legal regulation.","correct":true,"explanation":"The interception of Malone’s telephone communications was not governed by sufficiently clear, accessible law. It was therefore not “in accordance with the law” as Article 8 requires."},{"text":"Prison correspondence was routinely censored.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interference with prisoners’ correspondence arose in other Article 8 cases, not Malone. The breach in Malone resulted from phone tapping that lacked clear legal regulation."},{"text":"Press reporting disclosed private medical details.","correct":false,"explanation":"Publication of private medical information can engage Article 8, but that was not the issue in Malone. The case concerned inadequately regulated telephone tapping."},{"text":"Police surveillance continued after his acquittal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ongoing surveillance may engage Article 8, but Malone specifically concerned telephone tapping without a sufficiently clear legal framework. That lack of legal regulation caused the breach."}]},{"id":"c7d1e888-8c8a-46a2-9d0d-f3b3f352ee61","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In ex parte Simms, what cannot be overridden by vague statutory words?","back":"Fundamental rights.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fundamental rights.","correct":true,"explanation":"The principle of legality means Parliament must use clear and express language if it intends to curtail fundamental rights. General or ambiguous statutory wording will not suffice."},{"text":"Administrative guidance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Administrative guidance does not receive the special protection identified in Simms. The court held that vague or general statutory language cannot override fundamental rights."},{"text":"Ministerial preferences.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case was not protecting ministers’ preferred policies from ambiguous legislation. Simms established that fundamental rights cannot be overridden without clear statutory wording."},{"text":"Executive policies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Executive policies may be altered or displaced without the clear wording demanded by the principle of legality. That principle specifically protects fundamental rights from vague statutory interference."}]},{"id":"f8c04297-4cde-4159-a8a5-572219ce4a82","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must [ ] ECtHR case law, but are [ ] by it.","back":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must take into account ECtHR case law, but are not strictly bound by it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must take into account ECtHR case law, but are not strictly bound by it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 2 requires relevant Strasbourg judgments to be considered, but it does not create a formal rule of binding precedent. UK courts may depart from ECtHR reasoning where justified."},{"text":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must follow automatically ECtHR case law, but are strictly bound by it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating Strasbourg decisions as automatically binding confuses s2 with a domestic rule of precedent. UK courts must take ECtHR case law into account but are not strictly bound by it."},{"text":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must disregard ECtHR case law, but are not strictly bound by it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 2 positively requires UK courts to consider relevant ECtHR decisions, so they cannot simply disregard them. However, consideration does not make those decisions strictly binding."},{"text":"Under s2 HRA 1998, UK courts must take into account ECtHR case law, but are always required to follow by it.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first phrase reflects s2, but the second wrongly turns consideration into absolute obedience. UK courts must take Strasbourg case law into account without being strictly bound by it."}]},{"id":"bae8fc60-833a-4db2-a7b1-392234c0d91e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under s3 HRA 1998, courts must interpret legislation compatibly with Convention rights [ ].","back":"Under s3 HRA 1998, courts must interpret legislation compatibly with Convention rights so far as it is possible to do so.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"so far as it is possible to do so","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 3 imposes a strong interpretative obligation, requiring courts to read primary and subordinate legislation compatibly with Convention rights whenever a compatible interpretation is possible."},{"text":"only where the wording is unambiguous","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 3 is not confined to unambiguous language and may require courts to depart from an ordinary reading. Compatibility is required so far as it is possible to achieve."},{"text":"only if Parliament intended that result","correct":false,"explanation":"The s3 duty does not depend on evidence that Parliament specifically intended a Convention-compatible result. Courts must adopt such an interpretation so far as it is possible to do so."},{"text":"unless the claimant requests otherwise","correct":false,"explanation":"The interpretative obligation is imposed on courts by statute and does not depend on a claimant’s preference. Legislation must be interpreted compatibly so far as it is possible to do so."}]},{"id":"62f87fd3-52cd-4d38-9f83-bdb10f138a2f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a [ ], which [ ] the Act.","back":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a declaration of incompatibility, which does not invalidate the Act.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a declaration of incompatibility, which does not invalidate the Act.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 4 allows specified higher courts to declare primary legislation incompatible with Convention rights. The legislation remains valid and enforceable unless Parliament chooses to amend it."},{"text":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a declaration of incompatibility, which invalidates the Act.","correct":false,"explanation":"A declaration of incompatibility does not invalidate legislation or affect its continuing operation. Section 4 preserves parliamentary sovereignty by leaving Parliament to decide whether to change the law."},{"text":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a declaration of invalidity, which does not invalidate the Act.","correct":false,"explanation":"The remedy is called a declaration of incompatibility, not a declaration of invalidity. Its deliberately limited effect is that the incompatible Act remains legally valid."},{"text":"Under s4 HRA 1998, higher courts may issue a finding of unlawfulness, which automatically repeals the Act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 4 provides a declaration of incompatibility and gives courts no power to repeal primary legislation. Repeal or amendment remains a matter for Parliament."}]},{"id":"44edd403-5557-4417-8276-f8cefa3de613","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Under s6 HRA, when is a public authority’s act unlawful?","back":"When it acts incompatibly with Convention rights, unless primary legislation forces it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When it acts incompatibly with Convention rights, unless primary legislation forces it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 6 generally makes it unlawful for a public authority to act incompatibly with Convention rights. The authority is excused where primary legislation required that result."},{"text":"When it acts incompatibly with Convention rights, even where primary legislation forces it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the statutory exception in s6. An incompatible act is not unlawful under s6 where primary legislation required the authority to act that way."},{"text":"When it acts unreasonably in public law, unless secondary legislation permits it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unreasonableness is a judicial review concept, not the specific s6 test. Section 6 concerns incompatibility with Convention rights, subject to the primary legislation exception."},{"text":"When it acts against a claimant’s interests, unless a court approves it.","correct":false,"explanation":"A decision is not unlawful merely because it disadvantages someone. Section 6 requires incompatibility with Convention rights, unless primary legislation compelled the incompatible act."}]},{"id":"af586362-8faf-414e-9a4f-864fb8f06e54","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under s7 HRA, who may bring proceedings or rely on Convention rights in existing proceedings?","back":"A victim of an unlawful act.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A victim of an unlawful act.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 7 applies the Convention victim test, requiring the claimant to be directly affected by the alleged breach rather than merely concerned about it."},{"text":"Any interested person aware of an unlawful act.","correct":false,"explanation":"General interest or awareness is insufficient under s7. The claimant must qualify as a victim by being directly affected by the alleged unlawful act."},{"text":"Any taxpayer affected by an unlawful act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Paying tax does not automatically provide standing under s7. Proceedings may be brought, or Convention rights relied upon, by a victim of the unlawful act."},{"text":"A public authority responsible for an unlawful act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 7 gives standing to the victim of the alleged unlawful act, not automatically to the public authority accused of committing the breach."}]},{"id":"d5c057a1-6dea-426f-8f3d-87fbbce7288c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Greenfield show about s8 HRA damages?","back":"Damages are not automatic.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Damages are not automatic.","correct":true,"explanation":"Greenfield confirmed that establishing a Convention breach does not automatically produce damages. An award must be necessary to provide just satisfaction under s8."},{"text":"Damages are always automatic.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats compensation as an inevitable consequence of a breach. Greenfield established that damages are not automatic and must be necessary for just satisfaction."},{"text":"Damages are primarily punitive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 8 damages are not designed mainly to punish public authorities. Greenfield showed that damages are not automatic and depend on what just satisfaction requires."},{"text":"Damages are the primary remedy.","correct":false,"explanation":"This exaggerates the role of financial compensation under the HRA. Greenfield confirmed that damages are not automatic and other remedies may provide sufficient redress."}]},{"id":"8c164add-3bb5-40c7-9a1b-985734ab85db","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In judicial review, what does the court usually check about a public body’s decision?","back":"Its lawfulness, not whether the judge prefers another decision.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Its lawfulness, not whether the judge prefers another decision.","correct":true,"explanation":"Judicial review supervises whether a public body acted within its powers, followed proper procedures and applied lawful reasoning. It is not generally an appeal on the decision’s merits."},{"text":"Its merits, and whether the judge would have reached the same decision.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses judicial review with a merits appeal. The court normally examines the decision’s lawfulness, not whether the judge personally considers another outcome preferable."},{"text":"Its popularity, not whether it remained within its legal powers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Political popularity is not the usual test in judicial review. The court examines lawfulness, including whether the public body stayed within its statutory powers."},{"text":"Its outcome alone, not the legality of the process used.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial review is not limited to evaluating the final outcome. The court checks lawfulness, including legal powers, relevant considerations and procedural fairness."}]},{"id":"be8ab4b7-7c65-4692-b06b-3d8076b1e925","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A public authority does something it has no legal power to do. What public law label applies?","back":"Ultra vires.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ultra vires.","correct":true,"explanation":"An act is ultra vires when a public authority acts beyond the legal powers granted to it. Such an act may be challenged through judicial review."},{"text":"Intra vires.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intra vires means acting within legally granted powers, which is the opposite of the situation described. Acting without legal power is ultra vires."},{"text":"Res judicata.","correct":false,"explanation":"Res judicata prevents matters already finally decided from being litigated again. A public authority acting beyond its legal powers is instead described as ultra vires."},{"text":"Obiter dicta.","correct":false,"explanation":"Obiter dicta are non-binding judicial observations made within a judgment. An unauthorised act by a public authority is labelled ultra vires."}]},{"id":"2be66a42-020b-4dbf-9838-069cbd731ab1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which judicial review ground covers a decision no reasonable authority could have made?","back":"Irrationality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Irrationality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Irrationality, traditionally associated with Wednesbury unreasonableness, applies where a decision is so unreasonable that no reasonable public authority could have made it."},{"text":"Illegality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Illegality concerns misunderstanding, exceeding or misusing legal powers. The specific ground for a decision no reasonable authority could have made is irrationality."},{"text":"Procedural impropriety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural impropriety concerns failures to follow required procedures or observe fairness. The no reasonable authority formulation identifies the separate ground of irrationality."},{"text":"Proportionality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proportionality asks whether an interference is suitably balanced and no more than necessary. The traditional no reasonable authority test specifically defines irrationality."}]},{"id":"b0cc207c-5987-4b52-9d18-544759acd5a3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did ex parte Daly show about proportionality review?","back":"Proportionality can be more intense than ordinary irrationality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Proportionality can be more intense than ordinary irrationality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ex parte Daly recognised that proportionality can require closer scrutiny of the justification and balance behind a decision than traditional irrationality review."},{"text":"Irrationality can be more intense than ordinary proportionality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship identified in ex parte Daly. Proportionality can involve more intensive scrutiny than ordinary irrationality because it examines justification and balance."},{"text":"Proportionality is identical to ordinary irrationality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ex parte Daly rejected the idea that the two approaches are identical. Proportionality can demand a more structured and intensive review than ordinary irrationality."},{"text":"Procedural impropriety replaces irrationality when Convention rights arise.","correct":false,"explanation":"Convention rights do not turn irrationality review into procedural impropriety. Ex parte Daly showed that proportionality can provide more intensive scrutiny than ordinary irrationality."}]},{"id":"5326ebca-0f4d-4495-afb5-f08c8621a7fa","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"For a qualified right, what must a restriction be after a legitimate aim is shown?","back":"Proportionate - no further than necessary.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Proportionate - no further than necessary.","correct":true,"explanation":"Once a legitimate aim is established, the restriction must be proportionate: it must not interfere with the qualified right more than is necessary to achieve that aim."},{"text":"Reasonable - accepted by most people.","correct":false,"explanation":"General public acceptance does not establish the required legal test. The restriction must be proportionate, meaning it goes no further than necessary to achieve the legitimate aim."},{"text":"Authorised - approved by the executive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Executive approval alone cannot justify interference with a qualified right. After identifying a legitimate aim, the state must show that the restriction is proportionate and no more extensive than necessary."},{"text":"Absolute - allowing no individual exceptions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating a restriction as absolute ignores the balancing required for qualified rights. The restriction must instead be proportionate to the legitimate aim and go no further than necessary."}]},{"id":"e8ea3486-3b5f-4ae2-8e04-91da83cdc855","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The ECtHR is part of the [ ] system, not the [ ].","back":"The ECtHR is part of the Council of Europe system, not the European Union.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The ECtHR is part of the Council of Europe system, not the European Union.","correct":true,"explanation":"The European Court of Human Rights enforces the ECHR within the Council of Europe. It is institutionally separate from the European Union and its Court of Justice."},{"text":"The ECtHR is part of the European Union system, not the Council of Europe.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses two distinct European organisations. The ECtHR belongs to the Council of Europe system, while the European Union has its own court, the CJEU."},{"text":"The ECtHR is part of the United Nations system, not the European Union.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing international human rights bodies can make the United Nations tempting, but the ECtHR belongs to the Council of Europe system and is not an EU institution."},{"text":"The ECtHR is part of the Council of Europe system, not the United Nations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although the first organisation is correct, the contrast is not the one required here. The key distinction is that the ECtHR belongs to the Council of Europe, not the European Union."}]},{"id":"06a7019d-5020-458e-89d8-bd1a8107bac7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If the ECtHR is not an ordinary appeal court, what question does it decide?","back":"Whether the state failed to secure Convention rights.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Whether the state failed to secure Convention rights.","correct":true,"explanation":"The ECtHR determines whether a contracting state failed to fulfil its obligations under the ECHR. It does not simply reconsider whether the national court reached the best domestic-law decision."},{"text":"Whether the domestic court made an error of national law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating Strasbourg as another level of domestic appeal is the misconception. The ECtHR asks whether the state failed to secure Convention rights, not whether national law was applied perfectly."},{"text":"Whether the applicant deserves a complete retrial.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ECtHR does not ordinarily order or conduct a retrial as an appeal court would. Its question is whether the state failed to secure the applicant’s Convention rights."},{"text":"Whether the state failed to comply with EU law.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the ECHR system with European Union law. The ECtHR decides whether a state failed to secure Convention rights, rather than determining compliance with EU obligations."}]},{"id":"c2ee8ae5-91c2-4316-b864-acf8e5a67295","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under Article 34 ECHR, what status must an applicant have?","back":"They must be a victim of a Convention breach.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They must be a victim of a Convention breach.","correct":true,"explanation":"Article 34 requires victim status, meaning the applicant must be directly or sufficiently affected by the alleged Convention violation rather than bringing a purely abstract challenge."},{"text":"They must be a citizen of the respondent state.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nationality is not the Article 34 test, and non-citizens may apply against a contracting state. The applicant must instead be a victim of the alleged Convention breach."},{"text":"They must be a witness to a Convention breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"Merely observing a violation does not usually provide standing under Article 34. The applicant must be a victim who is directly or sufficiently affected by the alleged breach."},{"text":"They must be a resident of a Council of Europe state.","correct":false,"explanation":"Residence within a Council of Europe state is not the required status. Article 34 focuses on whether the applicant is a victim of the alleged Convention breach."}]},{"id":"8a6ed8b9-680b-4df9-afdb-021de8c96061","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must [ ] and apply within [ ] of the final domestic decision.","back":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must exhaust domestic remedies and apply within four months of the final domestic decision.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must exhaust domestic remedies and apply within four months of the final domestic decision.","correct":true,"explanation":"Article 35 normally requires applicants to use available and effective domestic remedies first, then lodge their Strasbourg application within four months of the final domestic decision."},{"text":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must exhaust domestic remedies and apply within six months of the final domestic decision.","correct":false,"explanation":"Six months was the former time limit and is therefore a common outdated answer. The current Article 35 deadline is four months after the final domestic decision."},{"text":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must begin domestic proceedings and apply within four months of the final domestic decision.","correct":false,"explanation":"Starting a domestic claim is insufficient because available and effective domestic remedies must normally be exhausted. Once the final domestic decision is reached, the Strasbourg deadline is four months."},{"text":"Under Article 35 ECHR, applicants normally must exhaust international remedies and apply within one year of the final domestic decision.","correct":false,"explanation":"Article 35 concerns exhaustion of domestic, not international, remedies. It also imposes a four-month deadline from the final domestic decision, rather than allowing one year."}]},{"id":"39163273-0284-4a8c-83a1-f5524c1a0284","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are [ ]; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award [ ].","back":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are binding on the state; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award just satisfaction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are binding on the state; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award just satisfaction.","correct":true,"explanation":"Article 46 requires the respondent state to abide by a final ECtHR judgment. Article 41 permits just satisfaction, commonly financial compensation, where domestic law provides incomplete reparation."},{"text":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are advisory to the state; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award just satisfaction.","correct":false,"explanation":"ECtHR judgments are not merely advisory recommendations. Article 46 makes final judgments binding on the respondent state, while Article 41 allows the Court to award just satisfaction."},{"text":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are binding on the state; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award criminal penalties.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ECtHR does not impose criminal sentences under Article 41. Although final judgments bind the state under Article 46, the remedy Article 41 authorises is just satisfaction."},{"text":"Under Article 46 ECHR, final judgments are binding on the applicant; under Article 41 ECHR, the Court may award injunctive relief.","correct":false,"explanation":"Article 46 specifically binds the respondent state, not merely the individual applicant. Article 41 concerns just satisfaction rather than the ordinary grant of domestic-style injunctions."}]},{"id":"c4da3947-ebc3-47e5-b743-d0283b5ab6f4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Subsidiarity means [ ] have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a [ ].","back":"Subsidiarity means national authorities have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a back-up.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Subsidiarity means national authorities have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a back-up.","correct":true,"explanation":"Subsidiarity places primary responsibility for protecting Convention rights on national courts and authorities. The ECtHR provides international supervision as a back-up when domestic protection fails."},{"text":"Subsidiarity means Strasbourg judges have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a back-up.","correct":false,"explanation":"Giving Strasbourg first responsibility contradicts subsidiarity and also makes the sentence internally inconsistent. National authorities act first, while Strasbourg provides back-up international supervision."},{"text":"Subsidiarity means national authorities have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a fourth-instance appeal court.","correct":false,"explanation":"National authorities do have first responsibility, but Strasbourg is not another ordinary appellate level. Under subsidiarity, the ECtHR acts as a back-up where national protection proves inadequate."},{"text":"Subsidiarity means European Union institutions have first responsibility; Strasbourg is a constitutional court.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the ECHR system with EU institutions and domestic constitutional review. National authorities bear first responsibility, and Strasbourg acts as a back-up rather than a constitutional court."}]},{"id":"56efde2a-983d-423a-8fba-06d6c2a96579","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Handyside v UK, which principle allowed the UK some discretion over restricting an allegedly obscene schoolbook?","back":"Margin of appreciation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Margin of appreciation.","correct":true,"explanation":"In Handyside v UK, the ECtHR recognised that national authorities had a margin of appreciation when judging local moral requirements and the necessity of restricting the publication."},{"text":"Principle of direct effect.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct effect concerns whether legal rules can create enforceable rights in domestic courts, especially in EU law. Handyside instead applied the margin of appreciation to national judgments about morals."},{"text":"Parliamentary sovereignty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliamentary sovereignty concerns Parliament’s domestic legislative authority, not Strasbourg’s level of deference to states. The discretion recognised in Handyside was the margin of appreciation."},{"text":"Separation of powers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Separation of powers allocates functions among branches of government and does not explain the discretion allowed in Handyside. The relevant ECHR principle was the margin of appreciation."}]},{"id":"47ca33f3-96b1-4505-aa5d-84a0cea7ff25","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Tyrer v UK, which principle meant the Convention was interpreted in light of modern conditions?","back":"Living instrument.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Living instrument.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Convention is treated as a developing framework whose meaning can evolve with present-day social, moral and legal conditions, rather than being fixed according to the views of its original drafters."},{"text":"Margin of appreciation.","correct":false,"explanation":"This doctrine gives states limited discretion in applying Convention rights, but it does not explain how the Convention’s meaning changes with modern social conditions. The correct principle is the living instrument approach."},{"text":"Proportionality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This principle requires a fair balance between an individual’s rights and competing public interests when a right is restricted. It does not concern updating the Convention’s interpretation; the correct principle is the living instrument approach."},{"text":"Autonomous interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"This approach gives Convention terms an independent meaning rather than relying solely on domestic definitions. It is distinct from interpreting rights in light of changing conditions, which is the living instrument approach."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Enforcement of human rights law","title":"Enforcement of human rights law Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"8443db08-96d3-53bb-b89f-82ac7af5eba1","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]