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23:[["$","$L32",null,{"feature":"flashcards"}],"$L33",["$","$L34",null,{"href":"/a-level/law/aqa/tort-remedies/flashcards","label":"Remedies","subjectCode":"a_level_law__aqa","surface":"flashcards"}],["$","$L35",null,{"runner":["$","div",null,{"className":"min-h-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden bg-background","children":["$","$L36",null,{"decks":[{"id":"3770e5db-841c-46bf-8161-2acfe1894537","title":"Remedies Flashcards","topicId":"afc801cd-34d8-5263-8206-0163182efbad","topicSlug":"tort-remedies","cards":[{"id":"8f0afbe3-a358-4b10-96db-98946b5c09b9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Once a claimant proves a tort, what are the two main remedies in these notes?","back":"

Compensatory damages
Injunctions

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Compensatory damages
Injunctions

","correct":true,"explanation":"Compensatory damages provide monetary redress for the claimant’s loss, while an injunction is an equitable order requiring the defendant to act or refrain from acting."},{"text":"

Nominal damages
Specific performance

","correct":false,"explanation":"Nominal damages and specific performance are not the two principal remedies identified here. The notes focus on compensatory damages, which address loss, and injunctions, which regulate conduct."},{"text":"

Criminal prosecution
Imprisonment

","correct":false,"explanation":"Criminal prosecution and imprisonment are criminal sanctions rather than remedies awarded to a tort claimant. The two main civil remedies in these notes are compensatory damages and injunctions."},{"text":"

Rescission
Rectification

","correct":false,"explanation":"Rescission and rectification are remedies chiefly associated with setting aside or correcting transactions. The principal tort remedies covered here are compensatory damages and injunctions."}]},{"id":"31f5e25c-574a-463c-8820-020766909aa5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the basic aim of compensatory damages in tort?","back":"To restore the claimant so far as money can.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To restore the claimant so far as money can.","correct":true,"explanation":"Compensatory damages aim, so far as a monetary award permits, to return the claimant to the position they would have occupied without the tort."},{"text":"To punish the defendant so far as money can.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishing the defendant describes the exceptional purpose of exemplary damages, not ordinary compensatory damages. Their basic aim is to restore the claimant so far as money can."},{"text":"To enrich the claimant so far as money can.","correct":false,"explanation":"Enriching the claimant would produce a windfall and conflicts with the compensatory principle. Damages instead seek to restore the claimant so far as money can."},{"text":"To deter the defendant so far as money can.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deterrence may be an incidental effect of liability, but it is not the basic compensatory aim. The award seeks to restore the claimant so far as money can."}]},{"id":"6f318976-637d-4a7f-bbef-9d80c88ab4cc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The compensatory restoration principle comes from [ ].","back":"The compensatory restoration principle comes from Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880]","correct":true,"explanation":"Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880] established that damages should place the injured party, as nearly as money can, in the position they would otherwise have occupied."},{"text":"The Wagon Mound [1961]","correct":false,"explanation":"The Wagon Mound [1961] is principally authority on remoteness and reasonable foreseeability of damage. The compensatory restoration principle comes from Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880]."},{"text":"Wells v Wells [1998]","correct":false,"explanation":"Wells v Wells [1998] concerns calculating damages for future financial loss, including the appropriate discount rate. The restoration principle derives from Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880]."},{"text":"West v Shephard [1964]","correct":false,"explanation":"West v Shephard [1964] addresses assessment of personal injury damages, including loss of amenity. The general restoration principle was stated in Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880]."}]},{"id":"d7acb46b-6649-46d8-b721-4943293e1014","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Under The Wagon Mound, what losses can a claimant recover?","back":"Loss caused by the defendant and not too remote.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loss caused by the defendant and not too remote.","correct":true,"explanation":"The claimant must establish factual and legal causation, and the resulting loss must fall within the remoteness rules rather than being an unforeseeable consequence."},{"text":"Loss caused by the defendant and however remote.","correct":false,"explanation":"Causation alone does not make every consequence recoverable; the law also restricts remote loss. Recovery covers loss caused by the defendant and not too remote."},{"text":"Loss unconnected to the defendant and not too remote.","correct":false,"explanation":"A loss cannot be recovered merely because it is not remote; it must also have been caused by the defendant. Both causation and remoteness requirements apply."},{"text":"Loss intended by the defendant and reasonably severe.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intention is not the governing test for recoverable loss under The Wagon Mound. The relevant loss must be caused by the defendant and not too remote."}]},{"id":"b372e8c1-299c-4844-9669-050e9baa4832","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do pecuniary and non-pecuniary loss differ?","back":"

Pecuniary: financial loss.
Non-pecuniary: not easily measured in money.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Pecuniary: financial loss.
Non-pecuniary: not easily measured in money.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Pecuniary loss has a direct financial value, such as lost earnings, whereas non-pecuniary loss, such as pain or lost amenity, cannot readily be measured in money."},{"text":"

Pecuniary: not easily measured in money.
Non-pecuniary: financial loss.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the classifications. Pecuniary loss is financial loss, while non-pecuniary loss concerns harm that is not easily measured in monetary terms."},{"text":"

Pecuniary: loss arising before trial.
Non-pecuniary: loss arising after trial.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether loss arises before or after trial concerns timing and assessment, not the pecuniary distinction. Pecuniary loss is financial; non-pecuniary loss is not easily monetised."},{"text":"

Pecuniary: physical injury.
Non-pecuniary: psychological injury.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The distinction does not depend on whether harm is physical or psychological. Pecuniary loss is financial, whereas non-pecuniary loss is not easily measured in money."}]},{"id":"569dbbcc-c5a6-4aa3-9872-4071a69f57ed","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do special and general damages differ?","back":"

Special: calculable up to trial.
General: not precisely calculable at trial.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Special: calculable up to trial.
General: not precisely calculable at trial.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Special damages cover losses that can be calculated up to the trial, while general damages cover losses whose value cannot be determined precisely at trial."},{"text":"

Special: not precisely calculable at trial.
General: calculable up to trial.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the categories. Special damages are calculable up to trial, whereas general damages cover losses that cannot be calculated precisely at that point."},{"text":"

Special: non-financial loss.
General: financial loss.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The labels do not distinguish financial from non-financial loss; that is the pecuniary distinction. Special damages are calculable up to trial, while general damages are not precisely calculable then."},{"text":"

Special: assessed by a judge.
General: assessed by a jury.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Special and general damages are not separated according to whether a judge or jury assesses them. Their distinction concerns whether the loss is precisely calculable at trial."}]},{"id":"8e38906d-28c7-41bb-b2b9-1e0699f78fed","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of [ ], as recognised in [ ].","back":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of ordinary life, as recognised in West v Shephard [1964].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of ordinary life, as recognised in West v Shephard [1964].","correct":true,"explanation":"Loss of amenity compensates for reduced ability to enjoy the ordinary activities and pleasures of life, a head of personal injury damage recognised in West v Shephard [1964]."},{"text":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of earning capacity, as recognised in West v Shephard [1964].","correct":false,"explanation":"Lost earning capacity is a pecuniary loss rather than loss of amenity. Loss of amenity concerns enjoyment of ordinary life and is recognised in West v Shephard [1964]."},{"text":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of ordinary life, as recognised in Wells v Wells [1998].","correct":false,"explanation":"West v Shephard [1964], not Wells v Wells [1998], is the relevant authority for loss of enjoyment of ordinary life. Wells concerns assessment of future financial losses."},{"text":"In personal injury, loss of amenity covers lost enjoyment of medical treatment, as recognised in Wells v Wells [1998].","correct":false,"explanation":"Medical expenses are pecuniary losses and Wells v Wells concerns future loss calculations. Loss of amenity means lost enjoyment of ordinary life, recognised in West v Shephard [1964]."}]},{"id":"b8271ea1-1bd2-46dc-9e8b-907fb752e707","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a [ ] method, approved in [ ].","back":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a lump sum method, approved in Wells v Wells [1998].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a lump sum method, approved in Wells v Wells [1998].","correct":true,"explanation":"Wells v Wells [1998] approved assessing future personal injury losses through a lump sum, using multipliers and an appropriate discount rate to reflect accelerated receipt."},{"text":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a lump sum method, approved in West v Shephard [1964].","correct":false,"explanation":"West v Shephard [1964] concerns personal injury damages such as loss of amenity, not the approved calculation of future losses. The lump sum method was approved in Wells v Wells [1998]."},{"text":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a nominal sum method, approved in Wells v Wells [1998].","correct":false,"explanation":"Wells v Wells [1998] approved assessment through a lump sum rather than a nominal sum. Nominal damages recognise a right infringed without substantial proven loss."},{"text":"Future personal injury losses may be assessed using a periodic sum method, approved in Livingstone v Rawyards Coal [1880].","correct":false,"explanation":"Livingstone provides the general compensatory restoration principle, not this method of assessing future losses. The lump sum approach for future personal injury loss was approved in Wells v Wells [1998]."}]},{"id":"cf1c7048-9e4f-47f8-a178-1c50366a9145","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"For property damage, what three measures may the court use?","back":"

Repair cost.
Replacement cost.
Diminution in value.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Repair cost.
Replacement cost.
Diminution in value.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Courts may award the reasonable cost of repairing or replacing damaged property, or the reduction in its market value, depending on the circumstances."},{"text":"

Purchase price.
Sentimental value.
Claimant’s expenses.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Purchase price, sentimental value and general expenses are not the three standard measures. The recognised measures are repair cost, replacement cost and diminution in value."},{"text":"

Original cost.
Future profit.
Insurance value.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses possible evidence or consequential losses with methods for valuing property damage. Courts use repair cost, replacement cost or diminution in value."},{"text":"

Resale price.
Improvement cost.
Personal value.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Resale price, improvement cost and personal value are not the standard measures of property damage. The court considers repair, replacement or diminution in value."}]},{"id":"c6403650-83f3-4601-a141-70b081f9963c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Dodd Properties show about damaged buildings?","back":"Reasonable repair costs may be recoverable despite differing from market value fall.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reasonable repair costs may be recoverable despite differing from market value fall.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dodd Properties confirms that reasonable repair costs can be awarded even where they do not equal the property’s reduction in market value."},{"text":"Only market value loss may be recoverable despite reasonable repair costs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats diminution in value as an exclusive measure. Dodd Properties shows that reasonable repair costs may instead be recovered despite differing from the market value fall."},{"text":"Reasonable replacement costs may be recoverable only if the building is destroyed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case concerned the recovery of reasonable repair costs, not a rule limiting replacement costs to total destruction. Those costs could differ from diminution in value."},{"text":"Reasonable repair costs may be recoverable only where matching market value fall.","correct":false,"explanation":"The requirement that repair costs match diminution in value reverses the case’s point. Reasonable repair costs may be awarded even when the figures differ."}]},{"id":"320b7989-db14-4b6b-a732-c3776cc7f06f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reasonable [ ] may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: [ ].","back":"Reasonable hire costs may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: Lagden v O’Connor [2003].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reasonable hire costs may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: Lagden v O’Connor [2003].","correct":true,"explanation":"Lagden v O’Connor establishes that reasonable vehicle hire costs may be recovered when the claimant needs a replacement vehicle following the defendant’s tort."},{"text":"Reasonable repair costs may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: Lagden v O’Connor [2003].","correct":false,"explanation":"This substitutes repair costs for the expense of temporarily hiring another vehicle. Lagden v O’Connor concerned recovery of reasonable hire costs."},{"text":"Reasonable hire costs may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: Dodd Properties v Canterbury City Council [1980].","correct":false,"explanation":"The type of loss is right, but the authority is confused with a building-damage case. Reasonable vehicle hire costs were considered in Lagden v O’Connor [2003]."},{"text":"Reasonable loss of profits may be recoverable where a replacement vehicle is needed: Spartan Steel v Martin [1973].","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses vehicle hire expenses with economic loss arising from interrupted production. The relevant loss is reasonable hire costs, supported by Lagden v O’Connor [2003]."}]},{"id":"faccd056-9ac2-4d44-a3ca-3bddad443b3a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do consequential and pure economic loss differ?","back":"

Consequential: flows from physical injury or property damage.
Pure: financial loss without physical injury or property damage.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Consequential: flows from physical injury or property damage.
Pure: financial loss without physical injury or property damage.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Consequential economic loss results from accompanying physical injury or property damage, whereas pure economic loss occurs independently of any such physical damage."},{"text":"

Consequential: arises without physical injury or property damage.
Pure: financial loss flowing from physical injury or property damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the definitions. Consequential loss flows from physical injury or property damage, while pure economic loss exists without either form of physical damage."},{"text":"

Consequential: consists only of damage to physical property.
Pure: financial loss caused by personal injury alone.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Consequential economic loss is financial loss resulting from physical damage, not the physical damage itself. Pure economic loss occurs without personal injury or property damage."},{"text":"

Consequential: financial loss caused only by negligent statements.
Pure: flows from any physical injury or property damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Negligent misstatement is an exception allowing some pure economic loss claims, not the definition of consequential loss. Consequential loss follows physical injury or property damage."}]},{"id":"2f5aa39d-a580-42d3-97b8-6f0c6dbb251a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"When is consequential economic loss generally recoverable?","back":"If caused by the tort and not too remote.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"If caused by the tort and not too remote.","correct":true,"explanation":"Consequential economic loss is generally recoverable where factual and legal causation connect it to the tort and the loss satisfies the remoteness rules."},{"text":"If foreseeable by the claimant and covered by insurance.","correct":false,"explanation":"The claimant’s foresight and insurance arrangements do not establish recoverability. Consequential economic loss must be caused by the tort and not be too remote."},{"text":"If caused by the tort and entirely financial.","correct":false,"explanation":"Being entirely financial does not satisfy the remoteness requirement and may suggest pure economic loss. Consequential loss must be caused by the tort and not too remote."},{"text":"If reasonably avoidable and precisely calculated.","correct":false,"explanation":"A reasonably avoidable loss may be excluded under the duty to mitigate, while precise calculation alone is insufficient. The loss must be caused and not too remote."}]},{"id":"d1032f39-74ea-46e7-a866-0e5f8d52526a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually [ ] unless a recognised exception applies, such as [ ].","back":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually not recoverable unless a recognised exception applies, such as negligent misstatement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually not recoverable unless a recognised exception applies, such as negligent misstatement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Negligence generally excludes recovery for pure economic loss, but liability may arise under recognised exceptions, including negligent misstatements satisfying the relevant duty requirements."},{"text":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually fully recoverable unless a recognised exception applies, such as negligent misstatement.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the general exclusionary rule. Pure economic loss is usually not recoverable, although negligent misstatement is a recognised route to recovery."},{"text":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually not recoverable unless a recognised exception applies, such as property damage.","correct":false,"explanation":"Financial loss flowing from property damage is consequential rather than pure economic loss. A recognised exception for genuinely pure economic loss is negligent misstatement."},{"text":"Pure economic loss in negligence is usually automatically recoverable unless a recognised exception applies, such as personal injury.","correct":false,"explanation":"There is no automatic recovery, and financial loss following personal injury is consequential rather than pure. Pure economic loss is usually excluded, subject to negligent misstatement and other exceptions."}]},{"id":"9aa78100-8347-4e0b-ad99-db1734ff83d8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In Spartan Steel, how was the claimant’s profit loss split?","back":"

Damaged metal profit: recoverable consequential loss.
Further work profit: unrecoverable pure economic loss.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Damaged metal profit: recoverable consequential loss.
Further work profit: unrecoverable pure economic loss.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Profit on the physically damaged metal was consequential upon property damage, while profit from production that never occurred was pure economic loss and unrecoverable."},{"text":"

Damaged metal profit: unrecoverable pure economic loss.
Further work profit: recoverable consequential loss.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the classification. Profit attached to the damaged metal was consequential and recoverable, but profit on further work was pure economic loss and unrecoverable."},{"text":"

Damaged metal profit: recoverable pure economic loss.
Further work profit: recoverable consequential loss.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The damaged metal profit was recoverable because it was consequential, not because pure economic loss was allowed. Profit from further work remained unrecoverable pure economic loss."},{"text":"

Damaged metal profit: unrecoverable consequential loss.
Further work profit: unrecoverable property damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Consequential profit on the damaged metal was recoverable, while lost profit from further production was not property damage. It was unrecoverable pure economic loss."}]},{"id":"d4836142-9208-4599-972b-ee57963ba19c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens to loss a claimant could reasonably have avoided after the tort?","back":"It is not recoverable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is not recoverable.","correct":true,"explanation":"The duty to mitigate prevents recovery for loss that the claimant could reasonably have avoided after the tort by taking appropriate practical steps."},{"text":"It is fully recoverable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Full recovery would ignore the claimant’s duty to mitigate. Loss that could reasonably have been avoided after the tort is not recoverable."},{"text":"It is automatically doubled.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitigation does not impose a penalty or multiply damages. Instead, avoidable loss is excluded because the claimant must take reasonable steps to reduce it."},{"text":"It is treated as remote.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidable loss is excluded under mitigation, not necessarily because it fails the separate remoteness test. The claimant cannot recover loss reasonably preventable after the tort."}]},{"id":"0910d9d6-66c3-4daa-b496-7f2d98fe0501","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The mitigation principle is often stated from [ ].","back":"The mitigation principle is often stated from British Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co Ltd v Underground Electric Railways [1912].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"British Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co Ltd v Underground Electric Railways [1912]","correct":true,"explanation":"British Westinghouse established that a claimant must take reasonable steps to mitigate loss and cannot recover losses that reasonable action would have avoided."},{"text":"Banco de Portugal v Waterlow and Sons Ltd [1932]","correct":false,"explanation":"Banco de Portugal concerns the standard of reasonableness when assessing a claimant’s mitigating actions. The mitigation principle itself is commonly stated from British Westinghouse [1912]."},{"text":"American Cyanamid Co v Ethicon Ltd [1975]","correct":false,"explanation":"American Cyanamid established the questions governing interim injunctions, not the mitigation principle. The mitigation principle is commonly stated from British Westinghouse [1912]."},{"text":"Shelfer v City of London Electric Lighting Co [1895]","correct":false,"explanation":"Shelfer concerns when damages may be awarded instead of an injunction. The mitigation principle is commonly stated from British Westinghouse [1912]."}]},{"id":"36e9434b-636e-4bd8-a956-9aa52e704590","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What standard does Banco de Portugal v Waterlow set for mitigation?","back":"The claimant must act reasonably, not perfectly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The claimant must act reasonably, not perfectly.","correct":true,"explanation":"Banco de Portugal recognises that mitigation is judged by reasonableness in the circumstances. A claimant need not choose the best possible response with the benefit of hindsight."},{"text":"The claimant must eliminate all losses, however costly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitigation does not require the claimant to prevent every possible loss regardless of expense. Banco de Portugal requires reasonable conduct, not perfect or disproportionately costly action."},{"text":"The claimant must act perfectly, not merely reasonably.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the legal standard and imposes an unrealistically demanding duty. Banco de Portugal requires the claimant to act reasonably, rather than making a perfect decision."},{"text":"The claimant must take every precaution, regardless of risk.","correct":false,"explanation":"The law does not demand every conceivable precaution, especially where action carries excessive cost or risk. The claimant is required to behave reasonably, not perfectly."}]},{"id":"9c2c4e4c-162e-4dc9-a149-cce59f8858af","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does mitigation differ from contributory negligence?","back":"

Mitigation: conduct after the tort reducing loss.
Contributory negligence: share in causing original damage.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Mitigation: conduct after the tort reducing loss.
Contributory negligence: share in causing original damage.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitigation examines whether later losses could reasonably have been avoided after the tort. Contributory negligence instead examines the claimant’s share in causing the initial damage."},{"text":"

Mitigation: share in causing original damage.
Contributory negligence: conduct after the tort reducing loss.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two doctrines. Mitigation concerns reasonable conduct after the tort, while contributory negligence concerns the claimant’s responsibility for causing the original damage."},{"text":"

Mitigation: conduct before the tort causing loss.
Contributory negligence: failure to reduce later damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The timing and functions are reversed. Mitigation concerns reducing loss after the tort, whereas contributory negligence concerns the claimant’s part in causing the original damage."},{"text":"

Mitigation: completely prevents recovery of damages.
Contributory negligence: always prevents recovery entirely.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither doctrine necessarily bars the whole claim. Mitigation excludes avoidable later loss, while contributory negligence reduces damages according to the claimant’s share in causing the original damage."}]},{"id":"d1080888-dd75-4f24-a89a-68c1ae5cb879","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An injunction is an [ ] remedy, so it is [ ].","back":"An injunction is an equitable remedy, so it is discretionary.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An injunction is an equitable remedy, so it is discretionary.","correct":true,"explanation":"Injunctions developed as equitable remedies and are therefore granted at the court’s discretion. Establishing a legal wrong does not create an automatic entitlement to one."},{"text":"An injunction is an common law remedy, so it is discretionary.","correct":false,"explanation":"An injunction is historically an equitable, not a common law, remedy. Its equitable character means that granting it is a matter for the court’s discretion."},{"text":"An injunction is an equitable remedy, so it is automatic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although an injunction is equitable, it does not follow automatically once liability is established. The court retains discretion and may refuse the remedy where appropriate."},{"text":"An injunction is an statutory remedy, so it is mandatory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Injunctions are equitable remedies, although legislation confirms the courts’ power to grant them. They are discretionary rather than mandatory in the sense of being automatically awarded."}]},{"id":"83aa53c9-2638-44e4-8d48-32ff4d273058","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Under what statutory test may the High Court grant injunctions?","back":"s37 Senior Courts Act 1981: where just and convenient.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"s37 Senior Courts Act 1981: where just and convenient.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 37 of the Senior Courts Act 1981 empowers the High Court to grant an injunction whenever it appears just and convenient to do so."},{"text":"s37 Senior Courts Act 1981: where necessary and proportionate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Necessary and proportionate is not the statutory wording governing this power. Section 37 authorises an injunction where the High Court considers it just and convenient."},{"text":"s25 Senior Courts Act 1981: where fair and reasonable.","correct":false,"explanation":"This uses both the wrong section and the wrong statutory test. The relevant power is in s37, and the prescribed test is whether relief is just and convenient."},{"text":"s37 Courts Act 1971: where equitable and appropriate.","correct":false,"explanation":"The statute and wording are incorrect. The High Court’s power comes from s37 Senior Courts Act 1981 and applies where granting an injunction is just and convenient."}]},{"id":"32695f70-8513-4da9-81fc-06de482bb3ee","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do prohibitory and mandatory injunctions differ?","back":"

Prohibitory: orders a party not to do something.
Mandatory: orders positive action.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Prohibitory: orders a party not to do something.
Mandatory: orders positive action.

","correct":true,"explanation":"A prohibitory injunction prevents specified conduct, while a mandatory injunction compels a party to perform a positive act, such as removing an obstruction."},{"text":"

Prohibitory: orders positive action.
Mandatory: orders a party not to do something.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two forms of injunction. A prohibitory injunction restrains conduct, while a mandatory injunction requires the defendant to take positive action."},{"text":"

Prohibitory: awards damages for completed harm.
Mandatory: declares the parties’ legal rights.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These describe damages and declaratory relief rather than injunctions. Prohibitory injunctions restrain actions, whereas mandatory injunctions compel positive action."},{"text":"

Prohibitory: prevents all future legal claims.
Mandatory: imposes criminal punishment.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Injunctions neither extinguish all future claims nor impose criminal sentences. Prohibitory injunctions restrain conduct, while mandatory injunctions require positive action."}]},{"id":"983493b8-334e-43f0-81e4-b6d9a9420a65","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What are the American Cyanamid questions for interim injunctions?","back":"

Serious issue to be tried?
Would damages be adequate?
Where is the balance of convenience?

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Serious issue to be tried?
Would damages be adequate?
Where is the balance of convenience?

","correct":true,"explanation":"American Cyanamid asks whether there is a serious issue, whether damages would adequately protect the parties, and where the balance of convenience lies pending trial."},{"text":"

Certain victory at the final trial?
Would punishment be adequate?
Where is the balance of probabilities?

","correct":false,"explanation":"An applicant need not prove certain victory, and interim relief is not punitive. American Cyanamid considers a serious issue, adequacy of damages, and the balance of convenience."},{"text":"

Completed tort already established?
Would specific performance be adequate?
Where is the burden of proof?

","correct":false,"explanation":"Liability need not already be established at the interim stage. The court considers whether there is a serious issue, whether damages suffice, and the balance of convenience."},{"text":"

Substantial damages likely to be awarded?
Would an apology be adequate?
Where is the public interest?

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are not the standard American Cyanamid questions. The structured inquiry concerns a serious issue to be tried, adequacy of damages, and the balance of convenience."}]},{"id":"9d2f4fe4-305d-47e7-b44e-858bbdb0e1c7","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"When may Shelfer support damages instead of an injunction?","back":"

Injury is small.
Money can adequately compensate it.
Injunction would be oppressive.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Injury is small.
Money can adequately compensate it.
Injunction would be oppressive.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Shelfer indicates that damages may replace an injunction where the injury is minor, can be adequately compensated financially, and an injunction would operate oppressively."},{"text":"

Injury is substantial.
Money cannot adequately compensate it.
Injunction would be proportionate.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These factors generally favour injunctive relief rather than damages in substitution. Shelfer supports damages where injury is small, money is adequate, and an injunction would be oppressive."},{"text":"

Injury is continuing.
Money cannot adequately compensate it.
Injunction would prevent further harm.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Continuing, financially irremediable harm normally strengthens the case for an injunction. Shelfer supports damages instead where injury is small, money is adequate, and restraint would be oppressive."},{"text":"

Injury is deliberate.
Money is sought as punishment.
Injunction would be inexpensive.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Shelfer is not a punitive test based on deliberate wrongdoing or inexpensive enforcement. It focuses on small injury, adequate monetary compensation, and the oppressiveness of an injunction."}]},{"id":"dacda95a-5000-4ff9-b23b-1fca42afc33e","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What did Coventry v Lawrence confirm about injunctions?","back":"

Injunctions are not automatic.
Courts consider fairness and proportionality.
Courts may consider public interest.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Injunctions are not automatic.
Courts consider fairness and proportionality.
Courts may consider public interest.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Coventry v Lawrence confirms that an injunction is a discretionary remedy rather than an automatic response. Courts weigh fairness and proportionality, and may take wider public-interest considerations into account."},{"text":"

Injunctions are automatic once nuisance is established.
Courts consider the claimant’s losses only.
Courts cannot consider public interest.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A proven nuisance does not automatically produce an injunction, and the court may consider fairness, proportionality and public interest. Treating damages or the claimant’s interests as decisive ignores the discretionary remedy."},{"text":"

Injunctions are normally automatic.
Courts consider fairness but not proportionality.
Courts must disregard public interest.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The court’s discretion includes both fairness and proportionality, while public interest may also be relevant. An injunction is not normally automatic merely because interference or nuisance has been proved."},{"text":"

Injunctions are available only when damages are inadequate.
Courts consider the defendant’s conduct alone.
Courts must prioritise private rights over public interest.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Inadequacy of damages can matter, but it is not the complete rule. Coventry v Lawrence confirms a broader discretionary assessment involving fairness, proportionality and, where relevant, public interest."}]},{"id":"9c0591fe-44b3-4876-a782-3ea59d5f4120","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"When should a mandatory injunction be granted under Redland Bricks?","back":"Only with a strong case and clearly framed order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Only with a strong case and clearly framed order.","correct":true,"explanation":"Redland Bricks sets a high threshold for mandatory injunctions: the claimant needs a strong case, and the order must state precisely what the defendant is required to do."},{"text":"Only with a strong case and broadly worded order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Redland Bricks requires a strong case and an order that is clearly framed, not broadly worded. Precision is essential because a mandatory injunction compels positive action."},{"text":"Only with a weak case and clearly framed order.","correct":false,"explanation":"The claimant must establish a strong case before the court compels the defendant to act. A clearly framed order alone cannot compensate for weak evidence or uncertain liability."},{"text":"Only after a final trial and fully quantified damages.","correct":false,"explanation":"Redland Bricks does not make a final trial and quantified damages universal prerequisites. The key safeguards are a strong case and a clearly framed order, reflecting the coercive nature of the remedy."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Remedies","title":"Remedies Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"afc801cd-34d8-5263-8206-0163182efbad","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]