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Rights Act 1998.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 2(1) concerns courts taking account of relevant Strasbourg jurisprudence. The provision identifying Convention rights for domestic purposes is s1(1) Human Rights Act 1998."},{"text":"s3(1) Human Rights Act 1998.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 3(1) requires legislation to be interpreted compatibly with Convention rights where possible. It is s1(1) that identifies the rights given domestic effect."},{"text":"s6(1) Human Rights Act 1998.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 6(1) generally makes incompatible acts by public authorities unlawful. The Convention rights given domestic effect are identified by s1(1) Human Rights Act 1998."}]},{"id":"e4eb9b03-d717-43dc-9333-2e93fada2dff","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under s6 Human Rights Act 1998, who must act compatibly with Convention rights?","back":"Public authorities.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Public authorities.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 6 generally makes it unlawful for public authorities to act incompatibly with Convention rights, subject to the statutory exceptions set out in the Act."},{"text":"Private individuals.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Human Rights Act does not generally impose s6 obligations directly on private individuals. The duty to act compatibly with Convention rights applies to public authorities."},{"text":"Foreign governments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 6 regulates public authorities within the Human Rights Act’s legal framework, not foreign governments merely because their actions affect someone in the UK."},{"text":"International organisations.","correct":false,"explanation":"International organisations are not the general category made subject to the s6 duty. The statutory obligation to act compatibly applies to public authorities."}]},{"id":"a85cbb6e-cdea-4c52-a11c-2b18b7adc26a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] concerns what the law should protect; a [ ] concerns what the law does protect.","back":"A moral right concerns what the law should protect; a legal right concerns what the law does protect.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A moral right concerns what the law should protect; a legal right concerns what the law does protect.","correct":true,"explanation":"A moral right is a normative claim about what ought to be protected, whereas a legal right is one recognised and protected by existing law."},{"text":"A legal right concerns what the law should protect; a moral right concerns what the law does protect.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the distinction: legal rights describe protection provided by existing law, while moral rights express claims about what the law ought to protect."},{"text":"A moral duty concerns what the law should protect; a legal right concerns what the law does protect.","correct":false,"explanation":"A moral duty concerns what someone ought to do, rather than identifying an entitlement the law should protect. The correct first term is moral right."},{"text":"A moral right concerns what the law should protect; a constitutional convention concerns what the law does protect.","correct":false,"explanation":"A constitutional convention is a non-legal rule governing constitutional conduct, not an entitlement protected by law. The second term should be legal right."}]},{"id":"0e9cda9d-57bd-4b73-99cb-6d7f186331c6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under s7 Human Rights Act 1998, a claimant must normally be a [ ] of the alleged unlawful act.","back":"Under s7 Human Rights Act 1998, a claimant must normally be a victim of the alleged unlawful act.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"victim","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 7 normally permits proceedings only where the claimant is a victim of the unlawful act, reflecting the Convention’s individual victim requirement."},{"text":"witness","correct":false,"explanation":"Merely witnessing an alleged rights violation does not normally provide standing under s7. The claimant must usually qualify as a victim of the unlawful act."},{"text":"bystander","correct":false,"explanation":"Being an uninvolved observer is insufficient under the Human Rights Act’s standing test. Section 7 normally requires the claimant to be a victim."},{"text":"campaigner","correct":false,"explanation":"A general interest in campaigning about human rights does not itself establish standing. The claimant must normally be a victim of the particular alleged violation."}]},{"id":"1d180ee1-e1d3-4e02-9c7b-153d52d506a8","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does natural rights theory say about whether rights depend on the state?","back":"Rights exist independently of the state.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Rights exist independently of the state.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural rights theory treats fundamental rights as inherent in human beings rather than conferred by government, so their existence does not depend on state recognition."},{"text":"Rights exist only when enacted by the state.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating rights as existing only through legislation reflects legal positivism, not natural rights theory. Natural rights are understood to exist independently of the state."},{"text":"Rights exist only after recognition by courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial recognition may make a right legally enforceable, but natural rights theory does not make the right’s existence dependent on a court recognising it."},{"text":"Rights exist only with democratic approval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Democratic support may influence which rights receive legal protection, but natural rights theory regards rights as inherent and independent of majority approval."}]},{"id":"f0ffe7f5-dacc-4e28-81cc-952124130222","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which principle requires Parliament to use clear words to override fundamental rights?","back":"The principle of legality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The principle of legality.","correct":true,"explanation":"The principle of legality presumes that Parliament does not intend to override fundamental rights unless it expresses that intention using clear and unambiguous words."},{"text":"The principle of parliamentary sovereignty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliamentary sovereignty concerns Parliament’s ultimate law-making authority, not the presumption requiring clear language before legislation is read as overriding fundamental rights."},{"text":"The principle of the rule of law.","correct":false,"explanation":"The rule of law is a broader constitutional ideal concerning lawful and non-arbitrary government. The specific clear-words presumption is the principle of legality."},{"text":"The principle of proportionality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proportionality assesses whether interference with a right is suitably justified and no more than necessary. The clear-words requirement comes from the principle of legality."}]},{"id":"a1223da4-79ea-4c93-b994-058991d12786","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the main weakness of natural rights theory?","back":"Uncertainty over which rights are natural and their extent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Uncertainty over which rights are natural and their extent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural rights theory lacks an agreed objective method for identifying supposedly natural rights or defining their boundaries, producing disagreement over both content and scope."},{"text":"Dependence on rights created solely by the state and their extent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dependence on rights created solely by the state is associated with legal positivism, whereas natural rights theory claims that rights exist independently of state creation."},{"text":"Uncertainty over which rights Parliament has enacted and their extent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural rights theory does not require every right to have been enacted by Parliament. Its central weakness is uncertainty about which rights are natural and their scope."},{"text":"Uncertainty over which rights voters support and their extent.","correct":false,"explanation":"The theory grounds rights in morality or human nature, not majority preference. Its main difficulty is identifying which rights count as natural and determining their extent."}]},{"id":"36162bc2-b70d-4d74-a4d1-718178712b8b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"According to legal positivism, why is a right enforceable?","back":"A valid legal source creates it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A valid legal source creates it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Legal positivism connects legal validity and enforceability to recognised legal sources, such as legislation or precedent, rather than to the right’s moral merit."},{"text":"An inherent moral value creates it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherent moral value may support a claim that a right ought to exist, but positivism requires creation or recognition through a valid legal source."},{"text":"A judge’s personal approval creates it.","correct":false,"explanation":"A judge’s personal approval is not a recognised basis of legal validity. Positivism makes enforceability depend on a valid legal source creating the right."},{"text":"A popular majority vote creates it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Popular approval may encourage legal reform but does not itself make a right enforceable. Legal positivism requires the right to arise from a valid legal source."}]},{"id":"b36aec31-5c15-450c-9c94-1bc81e548fd0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under [ ] and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under [ ].","back":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under s2 and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under s3.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under s2 and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under s3.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 2 requires UK courts to take relevant Strasbourg decisions into account, while section 3 requires legislation to be read and given effect compatibly with Convention rights where possible."},{"text":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under s3 and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under s2.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sections have been reversed. Section 2 concerns Strasbourg case law, whereas section 3 imposes the interpretive duty to read legislation compatibly with Convention rights."},{"text":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under s1 and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under s4.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the relevant provisions with sections 1 and 4. Section 2 covers Strasbourg authorities, while section 3 provides the compatibility interpretation duty."},{"text":"Under the Human Rights Act 1998, courts take account of Strasbourg case law under s4 and interpret legislation compatibly so far as possible under s6.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sections 4 and 6 deal with different matters: declarations of incompatibility and unlawful acts by public authorities. The relevant provisions here are section 2 and section 3."}]},{"id":"f688887a-e63b-460e-8808-9b8c9fef822b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which case illustrates s3 HRA interpretation to fit Convention rights?","back":"Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004].","correct":true,"explanation":"Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] demonstrates the strong section 3 interpretive obligation, allowing legislation to be read in a Convention-compatible way despite its ordinary meaning."},{"text":"R v A [2001].","correct":false,"explanation":"R v A is an important section 3 case concerning sexual history evidence, but the leading example of interpreting tenancy legislation compatibly is Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004]."},{"text":"Bellinger v Bellinger [2003].","correct":false,"explanation":"Bellinger v Bellinger concerned gender recognition and led to a declaration of incompatibility under section 4. The classic section 3 interpretation case is Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004]."},{"text":"R (Anderson) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002].","correct":false,"explanation":"R (Anderson) concerned sentencing powers and resulted in a declaration of incompatibility rather than a section 3 reading. Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] illustrates section 3 interpretation."}]},{"id":"73ca2858-1f1c-477d-a84b-e185adff60bd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the main strength of legal positivism?","back":"Certainty: lawyers can identify the legal source.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Certainty: lawyers can identify the legal source.","correct":true,"explanation":"Legal positivism separates law from morality and focuses on recognised sources such as legislation and precedent, making the applicable legal rules comparatively clear and predictable."},{"text":"Justice: lawyers can reject any immoral rule.","correct":false,"explanation":"A moral requirement is not the main strength of legal positivism because positivists distinguish legal validity from moral merit. Its principal advantage is certainty through identifiable legal sources."},{"text":"Flexibility: judges can create rights whenever needed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Broad judicial freedom is not the central positivist advantage. Legal positivism emphasises rules made or recognised through accepted sources, giving certainty rather than unrestricted judicial law-making."},{"text":"Universality: the same rules apply in every society.","correct":false,"explanation":"Legal positivism accepts that different societies can have different valid legal systems. Its strength is identifying law through social sources, producing certainty rather than universal rules."}]},{"id":"8e0b5436-3e32-4839-b631-a791ebb7e2db","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the main weakness of legal positivism?","back":"Rights may depend too heavily on state recognition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Rights may depend too heavily on state recognition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Legal positivism can make rights vulnerable because their legal status depends on recognition through the state’s sources of law, potentially excluding rights that lack official protection."},{"text":"Rights may depend too heavily on religious morality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual criticism. Legal positivism separates law from morality, so its weakness is excessive dependence on state recognition rather than dependence on religious standards."},{"text":"Rights may depend too heavily on judicial creativity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial creativity is not the main positivist weakness because positivism stresses recognised legal sources and institutional rules. The concern is that unrecognised rights may lack legal force."},{"text":"Rights may depend too heavily on international consensus.","correct":false,"explanation":"International consensus is not what determines validity under legal positivism. The criticism is that rights can be denied legal protection when the state has not formally recognised them."}]},{"id":"b277ba6b-7be9-409d-9919-f3e0923add75","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under a utilitarian approach, what standard judges rights?","back":"Their consequences for overall welfare.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Their consequences for overall welfare.","correct":true,"explanation":"Utilitarianism assesses actions and decisions by their consequences, favouring the approach that produces the greatest overall welfare or happiness for those affected."},{"text":"Their consistency with natural law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural law judges rules against objective moral principles, not primarily by their results. Utilitarian judges instead compare consequences and select the outcome producing the greatest overall welfare."},{"text":"Their compliance with parliamentary sovereignty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliamentary sovereignty concerns the authority and validity of legislation within the constitution. Utilitarianism uses the consequences for overall welfare as its evaluative standard."},{"text":"Their protection of absolute individual autonomy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Utilitarianism may limit individual autonomy where doing so improves overall welfare. It therefore does not treat personal freedom as the decisive standard in every case."}]},{"id":"8e6d6754-0379-4ae4-8600-c953023bf5f2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Article 10.1 protects [ ], while Article 10.2 allows justified [ ].","back":"Article 10.1 protects freedom of expression, while Article 10.2 allows justified interference.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Article 10.1 protects freedom of expression, while Article 10.2 allows justified interference.","correct":true,"explanation":"Article 10.1 states the protected freedom, including receiving and imparting information and ideas. Article 10.2 permits interference where the prescribed justification requirements are satisfied."},{"text":"Article 10.1 protects freedom of assembly, while Article 10.2 allows justified interference.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freedom of assembly is protected primarily by Article 11, not Article 10. Article 10.1 protects freedom of expression, while Article 10.2 addresses justified interference."},{"text":"Article 10.1 protects freedom of expression, while Article 10.2 allows justified abolition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Qualified rights are not abolished under Article 10.2; restrictions or interference may be justified under specified conditions. The protected right is freedom of expression."},{"text":"Article 10.1 protects freedom of thought, while Article 10.2 allows justified discrimination.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freedom of thought is principally addressed by Article 9, and discrimination is not the relevant concept here. Article 10 concerns expression and potentially justified interference."}]},{"id":"1116efe7-03c1-47d1-bad7-7d86437413f1","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"For a qualified right, what must interference be to be justified?","back":"

Prescribed by law.
Pursue a legitimate aim.
Necessary in a democratic society.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Prescribed by law.
Pursue a legitimate aim.
Necessary in a democratic society.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Interference with a qualified right must have a legal basis, pursue one of the recognised legitimate aims, and be necessary and proportionate in a democratic society."},{"text":"

Approved by Parliament.
Pursue a legitimate aim.
Necessary in a democratic society.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliamentary approval alone is insufficient and is not the precise first requirement. The interference must be prescribed by law, pursue a legitimate aim, and be necessary in a democratic society."},{"text":"

Prescribed by law.
Pursue a political aim.
Necessary in a democratic society.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The aim must be one recognised by the relevant Convention provision, not merely political. The correct test requires a legal basis, a legitimate aim, and necessity in a democratic society."},{"text":"

Prescribed by law.
Pursue a legitimate aim.
Supported by public opinion.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Public support does not replace the necessity and proportionality requirement. A qualified-rights restriction needs a legal basis, a legitimate aim, and necessity in a democratic society."}]},{"id":"8c1ce720-2763-4879-9637-2aba1871e878","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Handyside v United Kingdom confirm about Article 10?","back":"It protects ideas that offend, shock or disturb.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It protects ideas that offend, shock or disturb.","correct":true,"explanation":"Handyside confirmed that Article 10 protects expression that may offend, shock or disturb, because pluralism and tolerance require protection beyond ideas that are merely popular or agreeable."},{"text":"It protects only ideas that inform, educate or entertain.","correct":false,"explanation":"Article 10 is broader than expression with recognised public value. Handyside extended protection to ideas capable of offending, shocking or disturbing, subject to justified restrictions."},{"text":"It protects ideas that please, reassure or unite.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Convention does not restrict protection to agreeable or socially unifying views. Handyside specifically recognised protection for expression that offends, shocks or disturbs."},{"text":"It protects ideas that criticise government without exception.","correct":false,"explanation":"Political criticism receives strong protection, but Article 10 is not absolute and restrictions can be justified. Handyside’s broader principle protects ideas that offend, shock or disturb."}]},{"id":"67151653-1c9b-4402-ba10-3e63562f1184","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is a key weakness of balancing rights by welfare?","back":"Minority rights may lose to public opinion or state convenience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Minority rights may lose to public opinion or state convenience.","correct":true,"explanation":"Welfare balancing can allow majority preferences or administrative convenience to outweigh protections needed by unpopular groups, leaving minority rights especially vulnerable."},{"text":"Majority rights may lose to unpopular groups or judicial independence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Majority interests are normally strengthened, not endangered, by welfare calculations based on aggregate public benefit. The weakness is that minority rights may lose to public opinion or state convenience."},{"text":"Individual rights may become absolute regardless of public welfare.","correct":false,"explanation":"Welfare balancing does not necessarily make every right absolute. Its key weakness is that minority rights may be sacrificed when public opinion or state convenience is treated as more beneficial overall."},{"text":"State interests may lose to minority opinion or individual convenience.","correct":false,"explanation":"State convenience is often favoured rather than defeated under welfare balancing. The principal concern is that minority rights may lose to popular preferences or administrative expediency."}]},{"id":"d2cae0eb-6bee-42a4-8ccb-667de022c2e0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which critical theory argues rights may protect property and existing power structures?","back":"A Marxist view.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A Marxist view.","correct":true,"explanation":"Marxist theory argues that formally equal rights can preserve capitalist ownership and class relations, protecting property while concealing unequal economic power."},{"text":"A feminist view.","correct":false,"explanation":"Feminist theory primarily examines how apparently neutral rights may ignore gendered power and private harm. The critique focused on property and class power is Marxist."},{"text":"A libertarian view.","correct":false,"explanation":"Libertarian theory strongly protects individual freedom and private property rather than criticising rights for maintaining capitalist ownership. That structural critique belongs to Marxist theory."},{"text":"A natural law view.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural law theory grounds rights in objective moral principles or human nature. Marxist theory instead argues that rights can reinforce property ownership and existing class power."}]},{"id":"57a64581-ae71-4226-b282-a2349d81cb53","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can positive obligations answer feminist criticism of older rights theories?","back":"They require reasonable state steps to protect individuals from harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They require reasonable state steps to protect individuals from harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive obligations move beyond merely restraining state interference by requiring reasonable protective measures, including action against harms committed by private individuals."},{"text":"They require reasonable individual steps to avoid interference by the state.","correct":false,"explanation":"Leaving protection entirely to individuals repeats the concern that traditional rights overlook private and gendered harm. Positive obligations require reasonable state steps to protect individuals."},{"text":"They require absolute state guarantees that individuals will suffer no harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"An absolute guarantee against all harm would impose an impossible burden and is not the positive-obligations standard. States must instead take reasonable protective steps."},{"text":"They require state non-interference when private individuals cause harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"A duty limited to avoiding direct state harm describes a negative obligation. Positive obligations answer the criticism by requiring reasonable state action to protect individuals from harm."}]},{"id":"0b80bf0d-dc1f-4ba0-99ec-c3a45b999d28","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] usually creates a duty on someone else; a [ ] is freedom from interference.","back":"A right usually creates a duty on someone else; a liberty is freedom from interference.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A right usually creates a duty on someone else; a liberty is freedom from interference.","correct":true,"explanation":"A right correlates with a duty owed by another person, whereas a liberty means that the holder has no duty not to perform the relevant act."},{"text":"A liberty usually creates a duty on someone else; a right is freedom from interference.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the concepts. A right normally corresponds to another person’s duty, while a liberty concerns freedom to act without such interference."},{"text":"A power usually creates a duty on someone else; a right is freedom from interference.","correct":false,"explanation":"A power is the ability to alter legal relations, not the concept that ordinarily correlates with another person’s duty. The correct pair is right and liberty."},{"text":"An immunity usually creates a duty on someone else; a privilege is freedom from interference.","correct":false,"explanation":"An immunity protects someone against another’s legal power, while a privilege is not the intended general description here. A right creates a duty, and a liberty denotes freedom from interference."}]},{"id":"db363e32-0b09-4790-9267-5fcd2fc1b07e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If the state censors lawful expression without Article 10.2 justification, which obligation is breached?","back":"A negative obligation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A negative obligation.","correct":true,"explanation":"A negative obligation requires the state to refrain from unjustified interference. Censoring lawful expression without satisfying Article 10.2 breaches that duty of restraint."},{"text":"A positive obligation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A positive obligation requires protective or facilitating action by the state. Direct, unjustified state censorship instead breaches the negative obligation not to interfere with expression."},{"text":"A procedural obligation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural obligations concern matters such as investigation or fair decision-making. The direct act of unjustified censorship breaches the state’s substantive negative obligation."},{"text":"A horizontal obligation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Horizontal obligations concern the effect of rights between private parties. Censorship imposed directly by the state is a breach of its negative obligation under Article 10."}]},{"id":"92c1b1da-0d08-4253-be53-d9fe8236746c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which case recognised that Article 2.1 may require operational steps to protect life?","back":"Osman v United Kingdom [1998].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Osman v United Kingdom [1998].","correct":true,"explanation":"In Osman, the Court held that Article 2 can require authorities to take reasonable operational measures where they know, or ought to know, of a real and immediate risk to life."},{"text":"McCann v United Kingdom [1995].","correct":false,"explanation":"McCann concerned lethal force used by state agents and the planning of the operation. Osman established the Article 2 operational duty to address a real and immediate risk."},{"text":"Pretty v United Kingdom [2002].","correct":false,"explanation":"Pretty concerned whether Article 2 included a right to die and did not establish the operational protective duty. That duty was recognised in Osman."},{"text":"Soering v United Kingdom [1989].","correct":false,"explanation":"Soering concerned the Article 3 risk created by extradition to face inhuman or degrading treatment. Osman recognised the Article 2 duty to take operational protective steps."}]},{"id":"9c6aaf1e-b965-4735-8ec0-159440d70e51","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can Convention rights indirectly affect disputes between private parties?","back":"Because courts are public authorities under s6 HRA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Because courts are public authorities under s6 HRA.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 6 HRA requires courts, as public authorities, to act compatibly with Convention rights. Their decisions can therefore shape the resolution of disputes between private parties."},{"text":"Because private parties are public authorities under s6 HRA.","correct":false,"explanation":"Private parties do not generally become public authorities merely by entering litigation. Indirect horizontal effect arises because courts themselves are public authorities under s6 HRA."},{"text":"Because Convention rights bind all individuals directly under s6 HRA.","correct":false,"explanation":"The HRA does not generally impose Convention duties directly on every individual. Rights affect private disputes indirectly because adjudicating courts are public authorities under s6."},{"text":"Because Parliament is a public authority under s6 HRA.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliament is not the institution deciding ordinary disputes between private parties, and its position under s6 is specially excluded. The relevant public authorities are the courts."}]},{"id":"236b4634-45f1-4ae3-bc58-df711804f052","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Article 3 is an [ ] right; Article 5.1 is a [ ] right.","back":"Article 3 is an absolute right; Article 5.1 is a limited right.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Article 3 is an absolute right; Article 5.1 is a limited right.","correct":true,"explanation":"Article 3 permits no exceptions or balancing, making it absolute. Article 5.1 permits detention only within its exhaustively listed circumstances, making it limited."},{"text":"Article 3 is a qualified right; Article 5.1 is a limited right.","correct":false,"explanation":"Article 3 cannot be restricted by balancing it against public interests, so it is absolute rather than qualified. Article 5.1 is limited by its specified exceptions."},{"text":"Article 3 is an absolute right; Article 5.1 is a qualified right.","correct":false,"explanation":"Article 5.1 is limited because the permitted grounds for detention are expressly and exhaustively stated. It is not a generally qualified right, while Article 3 is absolute."},{"text":"Article 3 is a limited right; Article 5.1 is an absolute right.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both classifications. Article 3 allows no derogation or justification, whereas Article 5.1 permits interferences within its exhaustive list of lawful detention grounds."}]},{"id":"a4ebb9fb-6c6c-41f2-8e00-f06aefacb700","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In UK law, [ ] is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in [ ].","back":"In UK law, proportionality is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in R (Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In UK law, proportionality is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in R (Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001].","correct":true,"explanation":"Proportionality assesses whether interference with a qualified right pursues a legitimate aim and goes no further than necessary. Daly confirmed its central role under the Human Rights Act."},{"text":"In UK law, reasonableness is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in R (Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001].","correct":false,"explanation":"Reasonableness is associated with traditional judicial review, but Daly established that proportionality provides the more intensive approach required when reviewing qualified Convention rights."},{"text":"In UK law, proportionality is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in Donoghue v Stevenson [1932].","correct":false,"explanation":"Donoghue v Stevenson established the neighbour principle in negligence, not the test for restricting qualified rights. Proportionality was applied in the human-rights context in Daly."},{"text":"In UK law, irrationality is central to reviewing qualified rights, as in Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corporation [1948].","correct":false,"explanation":"Wednesbury is the leading authority for irrationality in traditional judicial review, not qualified-rights analysis. The relevant test is proportionality, illustrated by Daly."}]},{"id":"6851b7d7-08e8-4a48-b84e-b58cd0a8ed65","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the effect of a s4 HRA declaration of incompatibility on an Act of Parliament?","back":"It does not invalidate the Act.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It does not invalidate the Act.","correct":true,"explanation":"Under s4 HRA, the incompatible legislation remains legally valid and enforceable. The declaration alerts Parliament to the incompatibility but preserves parliamentary sovereignty."},{"text":"It invalidates the Act immediately.","correct":false,"explanation":"A declaration under s4 HRA preserves the validity of primary legislation rather than striking it down. The correct effect is that it does not invalidate the Act."},{"text":"It suspends the Act until Parliament responds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing a declaration with a temporary injunction leads to this error. Section 4 does not suspend legislation; the Act remains valid unless Parliament changes it."},{"text":"It requires courts to disapply the Act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Disapplication may arise where directly effective retained EU law rules apply, but it is not the effect of s4 HRA. A declaration does not invalidate the Act."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Theory in Human Rights","title":"Theory in Human Rights Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"43264209-8324-5ec9-9a50-b205e5c8b72c","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]