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reasonable person. Smith v Hughes establishes this objective approach to agreement."},{"text":"Formation is usually judged by a subjective test from Smith v Hughes [1871].","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses outward agreement with the parties’ private intentions. Smith v Hughes applies an objective test based on what a reasonable person would infer from their conduct."},{"text":"Formation is usually judged by an objective test from Balfour v Balfour [1919].","correct":false,"explanation":"Balfour v Balfour concerns intention to create legal relations in domestic agreements. The objective approach to formation is associated with Smith v Hughes [1871]."},{"text":"Formation is usually judged by a subjective test from Raffles v Wichelhaus [1864].","correct":false,"explanation":"Raffles v Wichelhaus concerns ambiguity and mutual misunderstanding, not a general subjective approach. Formation is normally assessed objectively under Smith v Hughes [1871]."}]},{"id":"eee7874a-697c-4f89-b564-b6e06c406b8a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A shop display is usually what legal status, rather than an offer?","back":"An invitation to treat - the customer makes the offer.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An invitation to treat - the customer makes the offer.","correct":true,"explanation":"A shop display normally invites customers to make offers at the till. The retailer can then accept or reject the customer’s offer to purchase."},{"text":"An offer to sell - the customer accepts it by choosing the item.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating the display as an offer wrongly removes the retailer’s choice at the till. It is normally an invitation to treat, and the customer makes the offer."},{"text":"A unilateral promise - the customer accepts it by entering the shop.","correct":false,"explanation":"A unilateral promise is accepted through performance of a specified act, as in a reward case. A shop display is normally an invitation to treat."},{"text":"A binding quotation - the customer accepts it by offering payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"The displayed price does not ordinarily create an immediately binding promise to sell. The display is an invitation to treat, followed by the customer’s offer."}]},{"id":"9aa5890c-1971-4293-9048-bbd674afff3c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under [ ], a counter-offer [ ].","back":"Under Hyde v Wrench [1840], a counter-offer destroys the original offer.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under Hyde v Wrench [1840], a counter-offer destroys the original offer.","correct":true,"explanation":"A counter-offer rejects and replaces the original offer, so the offeree cannot later accept that original offer unless the offeror renews it."},{"text":"Under Hyde v Wrench [1840], a counter-offer temporarily suspends the original offer.","correct":false,"explanation":"A counter-offer does not merely pause the original offer. Hyde v Wrench establishes that it destroys the original offer, preventing its later acceptance."},{"text":"Under Stevenson v McLean [1880], a counter-offer destroys the original offer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stevenson v McLean distinguishes a request for information from a counter-offer. The rule that a counter-offer destroys the original offer comes from Hyde v Wrench."},{"text":"Under Hyde v Wrench [1840], a counter-offer leaves the original offer open.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses a counter-offer with a mere request for information. Under Hyde v Wrench, a counter-offer rejects and therefore destroys the original offer."}]},{"id":"97985796-c64b-4858-9cfb-79914af1be40","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under the postal rule, when does acceptance become effective?","back":"When the acceptance letter is posted.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When the acceptance letter is posted.","correct":true,"explanation":"Under the postal rule, acceptance generally takes effect when the correctly addressed and stamped acceptance letter is placed into the postal system."},{"text":"When the acceptance letter is received.","correct":false,"explanation":"Receipt is the usual rule for instantaneous communications, but the postal rule is an exception. Postal acceptance generally becomes effective when the letter is posted."},{"text":"When the acceptance letter is read.","correct":false,"explanation":"The postal rule does not require the offeror to read the acceptance. It generally takes effect earlier, when the properly prepared acceptance letter is posted."},{"text":"When the acceptance letter is delivered.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delivery would apply a receipt-based approach rather than the postal rule. Under the postal rule, acceptance generally becomes effective when the letter is posted."}]},{"id":"7b2d2c6e-70ed-4ece-bff9-f1a4b508fbdc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a Carlill-style reward advert, how is acceptance normally made?","back":"By performing the requested act.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"By performing the requested act.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Carlill-style advert is a unilateral offer made to the world. Acceptance occurs through complete performance of the act specified in the offer."},{"text":"By promising to perform the requested act.","correct":false,"explanation":"A promise to perform does not normally accept a unilateral offer. In a Carlill-style reward advert, acceptance is made by actually performing the requested act."},{"text":"By beginning to perform the requested act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Beginning performance may affect whether the offer can be revoked, but acceptance of a unilateral reward offer normally requires completion of the requested act."},{"text":"By communicating acceptance before performing the act.","correct":false,"explanation":"Carlill-style offers ordinarily waive advance notification of acceptance. The offeree accepts by performing the requested act rather than communicating acceptance beforehand."}]},{"id":"b94b4c3c-5f24-4ec8-a1ab-2f054455a962","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Consideration must be [ ] but need not be [ ].","back":"Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Consideration must have legally recognised value, making it sufficient. Courts do not normally assess whether the exchange is economically equal or adequate."},{"text":"Consideration must be adequate but need not be sufficient.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the established rule. Consideration must be sufficient in law, but courts do not require it to be adequate or economically equal in value."},{"text":"Consideration must be equal but need not be adequate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Contract law does not require both sides to exchange items of equal value. Consideration must instead be legally sufficient, although it need not be adequate."},{"text":"Consideration must be sufficient but need not be legal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although consideration need not be adequate, an unlawful act cannot provide enforceable consideration. The correct distinction is that consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate."}]},{"id":"c48d9a3b-1359-4457-9b94-1cc2353a8e8a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the usual legal effect of past consideration?","back":"It is generally not valid consideration.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is generally not valid consideration.","correct":true,"explanation":"An act completed before a promise is made is generally not given in exchange for that promise. It therefore usually cannot amount to valid consideration."},{"text":"It is generally valid consideration for a later promise.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the requirement that consideration must be exchanged for the promise. Past acts are generally not valid consideration, subject to limited exceptions for requested acts."},{"text":"It is generally enforceable as a moral obligation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A moral reason for keeping a promise does not normally provide legal consideration. Past consideration is generally invalid unless a recognised exception applies."},{"text":"It is generally valid whenever the promisor benefited.","correct":false,"explanation":"A benefit alone does not make an earlier act valid consideration for a later promise. Past consideration is generally invalid unless the requested-act exception is satisfied."}]},{"id":"397c34da-1000-4672-9cf5-9b89d5f465c1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Under Foakes v Beer, what is the usual rule for part payment of a debt?","back":"Part payment is usually not good consideration for waiving the balance.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Part payment is usually not good consideration for waiving the balance.","correct":true,"explanation":"Foakes v Beer applies the rule that paying part of an existing debt is not fresh consideration for a promise to abandon the remaining balance."},{"text":"Part payment is usually good consideration for waiving the balance.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the rule in Foakes v Beer. Paying only part of an existing debt does not usually provide fresh consideration for waiving the remainder."},{"text":"Part payment usually automatically discharges the whole debt without further agreement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Paying part of a debt does not automatically discharge the balance. Under Foakes v Beer, the creditor’s promise to waive it normally requires fresh consideration."},{"text":"Part payment is usually not valid payment unless the full balance is paid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Part payment reduces the amount owed, so it is valid payment to that extent. It is simply not good consideration for a promise to waive the remaining debt."}]},{"id":"1524a804-a6fd-4fc9-ab41-dc035fe93952","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"When can promissory estoppel stop strict enforcement of rights?","back":"When a promise was relied on, making backtracking unfair.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When a promise was relied on, making backtracking unfair.","correct":true,"explanation":"Promissory estoppel may prevent a promisor from insisting on strict legal rights when the promisee relied on the promise and enforcement would therefore be inequitable."},{"text":"When a promise was made in writing, making backtracking unfair.","correct":false,"explanation":"Merely putting a promise in writing does not establish promissory estoppel. The promisee must have relied on the promise so that allowing the promisor to withdraw it would be unfair."},{"text":"When a promise was supported by consideration, making backtracking unfair.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consideration may make a promise contractually enforceable, but it is not the basis of promissory estoppel. Estoppel applies where the promise was relied on and backtracking would be inequitable."},{"text":"When a promise was intended to be permanent, making backtracking unfair.","correct":false,"explanation":"An intention that a promise be permanent is not sufficient by itself. Promissory estoppel depends on the promisee having relied on the promise so that withdrawal would be unfair."}]},{"id":"38533e16-7ac3-4fb1-ba0a-3f819b5cddfb","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed [ ], while commercial agreements are presumed [ ].","back":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed not legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed legally binding.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed not legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed legally binding.","correct":true,"explanation":"Domestic arrangements are normally presumed not to create legal relations, whereas agreements made in a commercial context are normally presumed to be intended as legally enforceable."},{"text":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed not legally binding.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the legal presumptions. Social or domestic agreements are presumed not legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed legally binding, although evidence can rebut either presumption."},{"text":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed not legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed not legally binding.","correct":false,"explanation":"The domestic presumption is correct, but commercial agreements are ordinarily presumed legally binding. Commercial parties are generally assumed to intend their agreements to have legal consequences."},{"text":"Social/domestic agreements are presumed legally binding, while commercial agreements are presumed legally binding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Commercial agreements are usually presumed legally binding, but the same presumption does not ordinarily apply to social or domestic arrangements. Those are presumed not legally binding."}]},{"id":"bde6b99e-6bce-46d1-a42e-09124d0a730a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What formation problem defeated enforcement in Scammell v Ouston?","back":"Lack of certainty.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Lack of certainty.","correct":true,"explanation":"The phrase “on hire-purchase terms” was too vague because essential terms, such as the payment period and instalments, were unresolved. The agreement therefore failed for uncertainty."},{"text":"Lack of consideration.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consideration was not the decisive formation problem in Scammell v Ouston. Enforcement failed because the proposed hire-purchase arrangement was insufficiently certain to constitute an enforceable agreement."},{"text":"Lack of intention.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case was not defeated by an absence of intention to create legal relations. The parties’ reference to unspecified hire-purchase terms instead made the agreement too uncertain."},{"text":"Lack of capacity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither party’s contractual capacity was the central problem. The agreement failed because its essential hire-purchase terms were too uncertain for the court to determine and enforce."}]},{"id":"8732b201-2d30-4bfb-b389-6495b834a6e9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may a court imply a term under The Moorcock?","back":"To make the contract work.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To make the contract work.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Moorcock permits implication through business efficacy where a term is necessary to make the contract function in the way the parties must have intended."},{"text":"To make the contract fair.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courts do not imply terms merely to produce a fairer bargain. Under The Moorcock, implication is justified where the term is necessary to make the contract work."},{"text":"To reflect what one party expected.","correct":false,"explanation":"One party’s subjective expectation is insufficient for implication. The Moorcock test concerns business efficacy: the term must be necessary to make the contract work."},{"text":"To punish a party in breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"Implied terms are not inserted to punish contractual wrongdoing. Under The Moorcock, a court may imply a term because it is necessary to make the agreement workable."}]},{"id":"433a109b-af68-4d19-86c3-c1bdc5d484e3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of [ ] under s9 and [ ] under s10.","back":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of satisfactory quality under s9 and fit for purpose under s10.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of satisfactory quality under s9 and fit for purpose under s10.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 9 implies a term that goods are of satisfactory quality, while section 10 requires fitness for a purpose made known to the trader before contracting."},{"text":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of merchantable quality under s9 and fit for purpose under s10.","correct":false,"explanation":"“Merchantable quality” is outdated statutory language associated with earlier legislation. Section 9 of the Consumer Rights Act 2015 uses “satisfactory quality”, while section 10 requires fitness for purpose."},{"text":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of satisfactory quality under s9 and suitable for description under s10.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 10 concerns fitness for a purpose made known to the trader, not suitability for description. Section 9 separately requires goods to be of satisfactory quality."},{"text":"Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015, goods must be of reasonable quality under s9 and fit for ordinary use under s10.","correct":false,"explanation":"These phrases do not state the statutory tests in sections 9 and 10. The Act requires satisfactory quality under section 9 and fitness for purpose under section 10."}]},{"id":"1d3b4793-e3e7-4e45-a55f-e2fa5c40587c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Breach of a [ ] usually allows termination and damages; breach of a [ ] usually gives damages only.","back":"Breach of a condition usually allows termination and damages; breach of a warranty usually gives damages only.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Breach of a condition usually allows termination and damages; breach of a warranty usually gives damages only.","correct":true,"explanation":"A condition is a major contractual term, so its breach generally permits termination and damages. A warranty is less important, so its breach generally permits damages only."},{"text":"Breach of a warranty usually allows termination and damages; breach of a condition usually gives damages only.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual remedies. Breach of a condition generally permits termination and damages, whereas breach of a warranty normally gives a right to damages only."},{"text":"Breach of a condition usually allows termination and damages; breach of a condition usually gives damages only.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first classification is correct, but breach of another condition would not usually be restricted to damages. It generally also gives the innocent party a right to terminate."},{"text":"Breach of a warranty usually allows termination and damages; breach of a warranty usually gives damages only.","correct":false,"explanation":"A warranty is not normally serious enough to permit termination, so the first half is wrong. Termination and damages usually follow breach of a condition, not a warranty."}]},{"id":"cf475988-faf7-4249-819f-c027c81ad4b2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"For an innominate term, what decides whether termination is available?","back":"The seriousness of the breach.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The seriousness of the breach.","correct":true,"explanation":"For an innominate term, the court examines the breach’s consequences. Termination is available if the breach substantially deprives the innocent party of the contract’s expected benefit."},{"text":"The classification at formation.","correct":false,"explanation":"An innominate term is not classified conclusively at formation as a condition or warranty. The right to terminate depends instead on the seriousness and consequences of the breach."},{"text":"The financial value of the loss.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amount of financial loss alone does not determine the remedy. The court considers the overall seriousness of the breach and whether it substantially deprives the innocent party of the expected benefit."},{"text":"The intention of the party in breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"The contract-breaker’s intention is not the decisive test for an innominate term. Termination depends on the seriousness and practical consequences of the breach for the innocent party."}]},{"id":"dd1cd780-e4db-406e-98c5-f5c433f0d2da","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When must an exclusion clause be incorporated to bind the other party?","back":"Before or at formation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Before or at formation.","correct":true,"explanation":"An exclusion clause must be brought into the contract before or when the agreement is formed. Notice supplied afterwards cannot normally alter the contract already made."},{"text":"Immediately after formation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Once formation has occurred, a newly presented exclusion clause is ordinarily too late to become part of the contract. It must be incorporated before or at formation."},{"text":"When performance begins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Performance may begin after the parties have already formed their contract, making incorporation at that stage too late. The clause must be incorporated before or at formation."},{"text":"After a breach occurs.","correct":false,"explanation":"A party cannot usually introduce an exclusion clause only after liability has arisen. To bind the other party, the clause must have been incorporated before or at formation."}]},{"id":"31789beb-3e97-4c8b-91da-9523e1ec957b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What notice is needed for an unusual or onerous clause under Interfoto?","back":"Especially clear notice.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Especially clear notice.","correct":true,"explanation":"Interfoto requires especially clear notice when a term is particularly unusual or onerous, ensuring the other party has a fair opportunity to understand it before contracting."},{"text":"Reasonable notice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ordinary reasonable notice is generally insufficient for an unusual or onerous term. Interfoto requires especially clear notice because the clause needs to be specifically drawn to the party’s attention."},{"text":"Written notice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Writing alone does not satisfy the heightened requirement for an unusual or onerous clause. The correct standard is especially clear notice, which may require prominent presentation."},{"text":"Notice after signing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Notice given after the contract is made cannot normally incorporate an onerous term. Interfoto requires especially clear notice before or at the time of contracting."}]},{"id":"999e0e48-0f28-4e01-af09-eeeaf4c3c67f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What liability can a trader not exclude under s65 Consumer Rights Act 2015?","back":"Death or personal injury caused by negligence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Death or personal injury caused by negligence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 65 of the Consumer Rights Act 2015 prevents a trader from excluding or restricting liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence."},{"text":"Financial loss caused by negligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 65 specifically protects death or personal injury caused by negligence, not every form of financial loss. Financial-loss exclusions may be assessed under different statutory controls."},{"text":"Damage to property caused by negligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Property damage is not the specific absolute category named in section 65. The protected liability is death or personal injury caused by negligence."},{"text":"Loss of profit caused by negligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Loss of profit is an economic loss and is not the liability automatically protected by section 65. The relevant prohibition concerns death or personal injury caused by negligence."}]},{"id":"f88e83dd-e3fb-4d25-a832-83dccb7e447e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] contract is treated as never existing; a [ ] contract is valid until set aside.","back":"A void contract is treated as never existing; a voidable contract is valid until set aside.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A void contract is treated as never existing; a voidable contract is valid until set aside.","correct":true,"explanation":"A void contract has no legal effect from the outset and is treated as never existing. A voidable contract remains effective unless an entitled party sets it aside."},{"text":"A void contract is treated as never existing; a void contract is valid until set aside.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second category is confused with a void contract. A voidable contract remains valid unless and until it is set aside, whereas a void contract is treated as never existing."},{"text":"A voidable contract is treated as never existing; a void contract is valid until set aside.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two legal effects have been reversed. A void contract is treated as never existing, while a voidable contract remains valid until set aside."},{"text":"A voidable contract is treated as never existing; a voidable contract is valid until set aside.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first category has been incorrectly labelled voidable. It is a void contract that is treated as never existing; voidable contracts remain valid until rescinded or set aside."}]},{"id":"23069ec3-7f18-4bc4-935c-4cecf65cb30f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a false statement of fact or law induced the contract, what vitiating factor arises?","back":"Misrepresentation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Misrepresentation.","correct":true,"explanation":"A false statement of fact or law that induces the other party to enter the contract is a misrepresentation and may provide a remedy such as rescission or damages."},{"text":"Mistake.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mistake involves an incorrect belief held by one or both parties, rather than a false statement made to induce agreement. The relevant factor here is misrepresentation."},{"text":"Duress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress arises from illegitimate pressure that compels agreement, not from a false statement of fact or law. A deliberately or carelessly misleading statement may amount to misrepresentation."},{"text":"Undue influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Undue influence concerns improper pressure or abuse of a relationship of trust. A false inducing statement is instead analysed as misrepresentation."}]},{"id":"cf010249-e3d7-4894-8374-17aef024052b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What effect can a fundamental mistake have on a contract?","back":"It may make the contract void.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may make the contract void.","correct":true,"explanation":"A fundamental mistake can mean there was no genuine agreement on an essential matter, making the contract void and treating it as having no legal effect."},{"text":"It may make the contract voidable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Voidability usually allows a party to set a contract aside, as with duress or undue influence. A fundamental mistake may instead make the contract void from the outset."},{"text":"It may make the contract discharged.","correct":false,"explanation":"Discharge ends or releases contractual obligations after a contract has been formed. A fundamental mistake affects formation and may make the contract void."},{"text":"It may make the contract illegal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Illegality concerns contracts prohibited by law or public policy. A fundamental mistake concerns the parties’ understanding and may render the contract void, not illegal."}]},{"id":"d59c78ac-c583-4d35-b12c-e6130adafa06","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What effect does illegitimate pressure causing agreement have?","back":"The contract is voidable for duress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The contract is voidable for duress.","correct":true,"explanation":"Illegitimate pressure that causes a person to agree amounts to duress. The contract is voidable, allowing the pressured party to seek rescission, subject to equitable limits."},{"text":"The contract is void for duress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress does not normally make a contract void from the beginning. It makes the contract voidable, so the victim may choose whether to set it aside."},{"text":"The contract is voidable for misrepresentation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Misrepresentation involves an inducing false statement, whereas illegitimate pressure is duress. The correct consequence is that the contract is voidable for duress."},{"text":"The contract is voidable for undue influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Undue influence concerns improper influence or abuse of trust, not necessarily illegitimate pressure. Pressure causing agreement is classified as duress, making the contract voidable."}]},{"id":"254ad246-c480-4d88-9d9c-c0e320047692","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which vitiating factor covers improper pressure or abuse of trust?","back":"Undue influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Undue influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Undue influence arises where improper pressure or abuse of a relationship of trust causes a person to enter the agreement, undermining the voluntariness of consent."},{"text":"Duress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress involves illegitimate pressure, often threats, that compels agreement. Improper influence or abuse of a relationship of trust is instead undue influence."},{"text":"Misrepresentation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Misrepresentation requires a false statement of fact or law that induces the contract. Improper pressure or exploitation of trust points to undue influence."},{"text":"Mistake.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mistake concerns an incorrect assumption about an important fact or term. It does not describe improper pressure or abuse of a position of trust."}]},{"id":"2d71a28b-8579-4802-be5f-6af3861dfaf7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If contractual work is substantially performed, what payment outcome may follow?","back":"Payment with a deduction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Payment with a deduction.","correct":true,"explanation":"Substantial performance normally entitles the contractor to payment, but the other party may deduct the reasonable cost of correcting defects or incomplete work."},{"text":"Payment in full.","correct":false,"explanation":"Substantial performance is not the same as perfect performance, so full payment may be reduced by the cost of defects or omissions. The usual outcome is payment with a deduction."},{"text":"No payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"No payment is generally associated with a failure to perform substantially, not substantial performance. Where performance is substantial, payment is usually due subject to a deduction."},{"text":"A refund of payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"A refund reverses payment and is not the normal consequence of substantial performance. The contractor usually receives payment, reduced by the cost of incomplete or defective work."}]},{"id":"77b590fc-7057-4aa4-a6cd-c46e48bd5ee4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a party indicates in advance they will not perform, what type of breach is it?","back":"An anticipatory breach.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An anticipatory breach.","correct":true,"explanation":"An anticipatory breach occurs when, before performance is due, a party clearly indicates that they will not perform their contractual obligations."},{"text":"A fundamental breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fundamental breach describes a breach affecting the contract’s core obligations, not its timing. Advance refusal to perform constitutes an anticipatory breach."},{"text":"A continuing breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"A continuing breach persists over a period after an obligation has been broken. An announced refusal before performance is due is an anticipatory breach."},{"text":"A minor breach.","correct":false,"explanation":"A minor breach is a relatively insignificant failure in performance. Declaring in advance that performance will not occur is instead an anticipatory breach."}]},{"id":"37aeb944-8711-474a-88a1-a8cc7cc7b744","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance [ ] or [ ].","back":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance impossible or radically different.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance impossible or radically different.","correct":true,"explanation":"Frustration applies when an unforeseen event, caused by neither party, makes performance impossible or transforms the obligation into something radically different from that originally agreed."},{"text":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance impossible or more expensive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increased expense alone does not frustrate a contract, as Davis Contractors confirms. Performance must become impossible or radically different, rather than merely more costly."},{"text":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance commercially inconvenient or radically different.","correct":false,"explanation":"Commercial inconvenience is insufficient because frustration has a demanding threshold. The event must make performance impossible or radically different from the contractual obligation undertaken."},{"text":"Frustration needs an unforeseen, no-fault event making performance more difficult or less profitable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater difficulty or reduced profitability normally leaves the contract enforceable. Frustration requires performance to become impossible or radically different through an unforeseen, no-fault event."}]},{"id":"d8601955-dfba-4b1d-8110-d689d4185dd1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does Davis Contractors show about frustration?","back":"Mere difficulty or expense is not enough.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mere difficulty or expense is not enough.","correct":true,"explanation":"Davis Contractors establishes that unexpected hardship, delay or additional expense does not frustrate a contract unless performance has become radically different from what was agreed."},{"text":"Any increase in expense is enough.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating every cost increase as frustration sets the threshold far too low. Davis Contractors shows that mere difficulty or expense is not enough."},{"text":"Foreseeable events always frustrate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Foreseeability does not automatically produce frustration and may indicate that the parties should have allocated the risk. Davis Contractors shows that mere difficulty or expense is insufficient."},{"text":"Self-induced hardship can frustrate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frustration cannot normally be based on circumstances caused by the party relying on it. Davis Contractors instead confirms that mere difficulty or expense is not enough."}]},{"id":"ecc02916-1e08-4836-891a-c155dacec506","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the aim of contract damages under Robinson v Harman?","back":"Put the claimant in the performed-contract position.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Put the claimant in the performed-contract position.","correct":true,"explanation":"Robinson v Harman states the expectation principle: damages should place the claimant, so far as money can, in the position expected if the contract had been performed."},{"text":"Put the claimant in the pre-contract position.","correct":false,"explanation":"Restoring the claimant to their pre-contract position describes the reliance measure, not the primary Robinson v Harman aim. Contract damages usually protect the performed-contract expectation."},{"text":"Put the defendant in the pre-breach position.","correct":false,"explanation":"Contract damages focus on compensating the claimant, not restoring the defendant. Robinson v Harman aims to put the claimant in the performed-contract position."},{"text":"Put the claimant in the punished-defendant position.","correct":false,"explanation":"Contract damages are generally compensatory rather than punitive. Robinson v Harman requires the claimant to be placed in the position they would occupy after proper performance."}]},{"id":"6604e1b6-474f-4d37-96bb-e09cc29797d1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What damages limit comes from Hadley v Baxendale?","back":"Loss must not be too remote.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loss must not be too remote.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hadley v Baxendale limits recovery to losses arising naturally from the breach or within both parties’ reasonable contemplation, excluding losses that are too remote."},{"text":"Loss must be precisely quantified.","correct":false,"explanation":"Difficulty calculating an exact amount concerns certainty, not the Hadley v Baxendale rule. That case limits damages by requiring loss not to be too remote."},{"text":"Loss must be physically foreseeable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The test is not confined to physical consequences or ordinary foreseeability. Hadley v Baxendale asks whether the loss is too remote from the breach."},{"text":"Loss must be intentionally caused.","correct":false,"explanation":"A claimant need not prove that the defendant intended the loss. Hadley v Baxendale instead restricts recovery where loss is too remote."}]},{"id":"cb7c75ac-94d1-465e-9555-454476dbc205","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Specific performance is more likely where [ ] are [ ].","back":"Specific performance is more likely where damages are inadequate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Specific performance is more likely where damages are inadequate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Specific performance is an equitable remedy, usually ordered when damages cannot adequately compensate the claimant, such as where the contract concerns land or unique goods."},{"text":"Specific performance is more likely where damages are adequate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adequate damages usually remove the need for an equitable order compelling performance. Specific performance is more likely where damages are inadequate."},{"text":"Specific performance is more likely where goods are readily replaceable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Readily replaceable goods can normally be purchased elsewhere, allowing damages to compensate the claimant. Specific performance is more likely where damages are inadequate."},{"text":"Specific performance is more likely where personal services are required.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courts generally refuse to compel personal services because supervision is difficult and forced performance is objectionable. Specific performance is more likely where damages are inadequate."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"The rules of contract law","title":"The rules of contract law Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"aa31c243-110c-5c3a-a2f1-caea8cc7a727","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]