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social pressure."},{"text":"Moral authority through individual conscience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral authority may influence behaviour, but conscience alone does not make a rule legal. The defining feature is state enforceability through recognised legal institutions."},{"text":"Social acceptance through community customs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Community acceptance can create a social norm, but it does not automatically create law. A legal rule is distinguished by state enforceability through recognised legal institutions."},{"text":"Religious approval through spiritual institutions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Religious rules may guide believers without being part of the legal system. A rule becomes legal through state enforceability by recognised legal institutions."}]},{"id":"c707cf2d-4586-4df6-942b-7818a479f210","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A legal rule normally has [ ] and [ ].","back":"A legal rule normally has official recognition and legal consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A legal rule normally has official recognition and legal consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Legal rules are recognised by an authorised source, such as Parliament or the courts, and their breach produces consequences enforceable through the legal system."},{"text":"A legal rule normally has social recognition and legal consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social recognition may support a custom but does not by itself establish a legal rule. The rule normally requires official recognition as well as legal consequences."},{"text":"A legal rule normally has official recognition and moral consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral consequences involve guilt or disapproval rather than legal enforcement. A legal rule normally combines official recognition with legal consequences imposed through legal institutions."},{"text":"A legal rule normally has moral approval and social consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral approval and social consequences describe a non-legal norm rather than law. A legal rule normally has official recognition and legal consequences."}]},{"id":"4a6e10dc-647e-4716-bc18-674adce801d6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What are the usual consequences of breaking a non-legal norm?","back":"Social or personal consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Social or personal consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Breaking a non-legal norm usually leads to consequences such as disapproval, exclusion, embarrassment or guilt, rather than a sanction imposed by a court or other legal institution."},{"text":"Criminal or custodial consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Criminal penalties and imprisonment follow breaches of criminal law, not merely non-legal norms. Breaking a non-legal norm usually produces social or personal consequences."},{"text":"Civil or financial consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Damages and other financial remedies arise from legally recognised civil claims. A breach of a non-legal norm usually results instead in social or personal consequences."},{"text":"Judicial or statutory consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial and statutory consequences depend on a recognised source of law. Non-legal norms are ordinarily enforced through social pressure or personal conscience, producing social or personal consequences."}]},{"id":"7d5132c4-2515-45b2-96e6-946b31545f49","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If no recognised legal source makes conduct enforceable, how should it be treated?","back":"Not automatically unlawful, even if unfair or immoral.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Not automatically unlawful, even if unfair or immoral.","correct":true,"explanation":"Conduct is not unlawful merely because it appears unfair or immoral. A recognised legal source must prohibit it or provide an enforceable legal claim."},{"text":"Automatically unlawful, because unfair conduct is illegal.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses moral unfairness with legal prohibition. Without a recognised legal source making the conduct enforceable, it is not automatically unlawful, even if unfair or immoral."},{"text":"Criminally prohibited, even without statutory authority.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral condemnation alone cannot create a criminal offence, and criminal liability requires recognised legal authority. The conduct is not automatically unlawful without an applicable legal source."},{"text":"Legally enforceable, if society strongly disapproves.","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong social disapproval may establish a norm but does not itself create enforceable law. Without recognition by a legal source, the conduct is not automatically unlawful."}]},{"id":"536320d8-7b4f-4669-a66d-b929d6d75d39","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was the promise in Balfour v Balfour not enforceable?","back":"There was no intention to create legal relations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"There was no intention to create legal relations.","correct":true,"explanation":"The agreement was made in a domestic context while the spouses were living amicably, so the court presumed that they did not intend it to be legally binding."},{"text":"There was no consideration for the promise.","correct":false,"explanation":"The decisive issue was not an absence of consideration. As a domestic arrangement made while the couple were amicable, it lacked intention to create legal relations."},{"text":"There was no acceptance of the original offer.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case did not fail because Mrs Balfour had rejected or failed to accept an offer. The promise was unenforceable because there was no intention to create legal relations."},{"text":"There was no legal capacity between the parties.","correct":false,"explanation":"Marriage did not remove either party’s legal capacity to contract. The domestic promise was unenforceable because the circumstances showed no intention to create legal relations."}]},{"id":"fd91bc9c-93ef-4b8a-9ac4-ecaf33f17da0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Theft is morally wrong, socially condemned and criminal under [ ].","back":"Theft is morally wrong, socially condemned and criminal under s1 Theft Act 1968.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"s1 Theft Act 1968","correct":true,"explanation":"Section 1 of the Theft Act 1968 creates the offence of theft, defined as dishonestly appropriating property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving them of it."},{"text":"s9 Theft Act 1968","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 9 of the Theft Act 1968 concerns burglary, which is a separate offence involving unlawful entry. Theft itself is the offence created by s1 Theft Act 1968."},{"text":"s1 Fraud Act 2006","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 1 of the Fraud Act 2006 creates the general offence of fraud, not theft. Theft is criminalised under s1 Theft Act 1968."},{"text":"s1 Criminal Damage Act 1971","correct":false,"explanation":"Section 1 of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 concerns destroying or damaging property. The offence of theft is created by s1 Theft Act 1968."}]},{"id":"ee0b73ea-8729-4435-8c8a-de35c3a09c66","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does criminal law treat wrongdoing as?","back":"An offence against the state or public order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An offence against the state or public order.","correct":true,"explanation":"Criminal wrongdoing is treated as a public wrong against the state or society, which is why prosecutions are generally brought by public authorities rather than solely by victims."},{"text":"An individual dispute between private parties.","correct":false,"explanation":"A dispute between private parties is generally the concern of civil law. Criminal law treats wrongdoing as an offence against the state or public order."},{"text":"An action requiring compensation for the claimant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Compensating a claimant is primarily a civil law objective. Criminal law treats wrongdoing as an offence against the state or public order and may impose punishment."},{"text":"An agreement creating obligations between individuals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Agreements creating obligations belong mainly to contract law and are civil matters. Criminal law instead treats wrongdoing as an offence against the state or public order."}]},{"id":"96c228d7-837a-4e9d-9a2f-fae28e17f945","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the usual aim of civil law?","back":"To provide a remedy to the injured party.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To provide a remedy to the injured party.","correct":true,"explanation":"Civil law primarily seeks to address a private wrong by providing an appropriate remedy, such as damages, an injunction or an order restoring the injured party’s position."},{"text":"To provide a punishment to the convicted offender.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishing a convicted offender is primarily an aim of criminal law. Civil law usually seeks to provide a remedy to the party injured by a private wrong."},{"text":"To provide a prosecution to protect public order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prosecution on behalf of the public is associated with criminal law. Civil law usually enables an injured party to seek a remedy for a private wrong."},{"text":"To provide a sentence to deter future crime.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sentencing and deterrence are functions of criminal law following conviction. The usual aim of civil law is to provide a remedy to the injured party."}]},{"id":"8f406da6-e24e-4dff-840d-2f26abdf7160","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] law punishes; [ ] law remedies.","back":"Criminal law punishes; civil law remedies.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Criminal law punishes; civil law remedies.","correct":true,"explanation":"Criminal law deals with offences prosecuted by the state and imposes punishments, whereas civil law resolves disputes and provides remedies such as damages."},{"text":"Civil law punishes; criminal law remedies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Civil law generally provides remedies rather than punishments, while criminal law prosecutes offences. The concepts have been reversed here, so the correct order is criminal law followed by civil law."},{"text":"Public law punishes; private law remedies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both branches can involve a court, but criminal law is the branch concerned with punishment and civil law is concerned with remedies. This option incorrectly treats public and private law alike."},{"text":"Contract law punishes; criminal law remedies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Contract law is a civil-law subject and does not generally punish offences, while criminal law is not simply a form of private dispute resolution. The relevant distinction is criminal and civil law."}]},{"id":"70a4c973-92d6-4a20-bd2f-a12a18b68c4c","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How do the parties differ in criminal and civil cases?","back":"

Criminal: Crown/prosecution v defendant.
Civil: claimant v defendant.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Criminal: Crown/prosecution v defendant.
Civil: claimant v defendant.

","correct":true,"explanation":"A criminal case is brought by the Crown or prosecution against the defendant, while a civil case is brought by a claimant against a defendant."},{"text":"

Criminal: claimant v defendant.
Civil: Crown/prosecution v defendant.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The claimant is the party bringing a civil case, not the usual party prosecuting a criminal offence. Criminal proceedings are brought by the Crown or prosecution against a defendant."},{"text":"

Criminal: police v defendant.
Civil: claimant v defendant.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The police may investigate a crime, but they are not normally identified as the formal party opposing the defendant in this summary. Civil cases are brought by claimants."},{"text":"

Criminal: defendant v Crown/prosecution.
Civil: defendant v claimant.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A defendant is sued or prosecuted by another party; the defendant does not normally bring the case against the claimant or prosecution. The criminal party is the Crown or prosecution."}]},{"id":"31b5419b-e90f-4182-9636-31f97ff31f6c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In criminal cases the court must be [ ]; in civil cases the standard is the [ ].","back":"In criminal cases the court must be sure; in civil cases the standard is the balance of probabilities.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In criminal cases the court must be sure; in civil cases the standard is the balance of probabilities.","correct":true,"explanation":"The criminal standard requires the court to be sure of guilt. Civil cases use the balance of probabilities, meaning the claim is more likely than not to be true."},{"text":"In criminal cases the court must be beyond reasonable doubt; in civil cases the standard is the balance of probabilities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Beyond reasonable doubt is an older expression associated with the criminal standard, but this card uses the modern wording ‘sure’. Civil cases still use the balance of probabilities."},{"text":"In criminal cases the court must be on the balance of probabilities; in civil cases the standard is the balance of probabilities.","correct":false,"explanation":"The balance of probabilities is the civil standard, not the criminal one. Criminal guilt must be established so that the court is sure, which is a higher threshold."},{"text":"In criminal cases the court must be beyond reasonable suspicion; in civil cases the standard is the balance of probabilities.","correct":false,"explanation":"‘Beyond reasonable suspicion’ is an investigative threshold, not the standard for proving criminal guilt. The court must be sure, while civil liability uses the balance of probabilities."}]},{"id":"1b239f2f-8a38-4fe7-8627-735ee8e35a91","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Who generally bears the criminal burden of proof under Woolmington v DPP?","back":"The prosecution.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The prosecution.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Woolmington principle places the general burden of proving the defendant’s guilt on the prosecution, subject to limited statutory exceptions."},{"text":"The defendant.","correct":false,"explanation":"The defendant may have an evidential burden in some situations, but the general legal burden of proving guilt rests on the prosecution under Woolmington v DPP."},{"text":"The judge.","correct":false,"explanation":"The judge directs the jury and rules on legal issues but does not generally bear the burden of proving the defendant’s guilt. That burden belongs to the prosecution."},{"text":"The claimant.","correct":false,"explanation":"A claimant brings a civil claim and is not the usual party responsible for proving guilt in a criminal prosecution. Woolmington places that general burden on the prosecution."}]},{"id":"61fa4c30-e984-46f0-8fbf-2cbe3758987c","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How do outcomes differ in criminal and civil cases?","back":"

Criminal: conviction or acquittal; possible sentence.
Civil: liability or no liability; possible remedy.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Criminal: conviction or acquittal; possible sentence.
Civil: liability or no liability; possible remedy.

","correct":true,"explanation":"A successful criminal prosecution results in conviction, or acquittal if guilt is not proved; conviction may lead to a sentence. Civil proceedings decide liability and may award a remedy."},{"text":"

Criminal: liability or no liability; possible remedy.
Civil: conviction or acquittal; possible sentence.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Damages and injunctions are civil remedies, not the usual outcomes described for criminal proceedings. Criminal cases result in conviction or acquittal, with a possible sentence."},{"text":"

Criminal: conviction or acquittal; possible remedy.
Civil: liability or no liability; possible sentence.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A criminal court does not normally decide civil liability or award a civil remedy as the primary outcome. It determines conviction or acquittal and may impose a sentence."},{"text":"

Criminal: warning or dismissal; possible sentence.
Civil: guilt or innocence; possible remedy.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Warning or dismissal is not the standard pair of outcomes for all criminal cases, and civil courts determine liability rather than guilt. The correct criminal outcomes are conviction or acquittal."}]},{"id":"1dd16f04-8269-48d0-b81a-a55fb92f1456","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can smashing a shop window lead to both criminal and civil action?","back":"

Criminal: state may prosecute the damage.
Civil: owner may claim repair cost.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Criminal: state may prosecute the damage.
Civil: owner may claim repair cost.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The same conduct can be both a crime against the state and a civil wrong against the owner. The state may prosecute, while the owner can recover the cost of repair."},{"text":"

Criminal: owner may prosecute the damage.
Civil: state may claim repair cost.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The owner can bring a civil claim for repair costs, but criminal prosecution is normally undertaken by the state rather than the private owner. The two roles are reversed here."},{"text":"

Criminal: state may claim repair cost.
Civil: owner may prosecute the damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Smashing the window may create criminal and civil consequences, but the criminal action is not normally limited to recovering the repair cost. The owner’s financial claim is civil."},{"text":"

Criminal: owner may prosecute the damage.
Civil: state may prosecute the damage.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The state prosecutes the criminal damage, whereas the owner brings the civil claim. Treating both actions as criminal ignores the separate civil remedy for the repair cost."}]},{"id":"d127594b-2a9b-455f-a36d-2ff5c572ec8c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A source of law is where a [ ] comes from.","back":"A source of law is where a legal rule comes from.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"legal rule","correct":true,"explanation":"A legal rule is a rule recognised as part of the legal system. A source of law identifies where that rule originates, such as legislation, precedent or custom."},{"text":"legal institution","correct":false,"explanation":"A legal institution is an organisation or body involved in law, not the rule itself. The sentence asks where a legal rule comes from, so the correct term is ‘legal rule’."},{"text":"legal remedy","correct":false,"explanation":"A legal remedy is the response available after a legal wrong, such as damages or an injunction. It is not the object whose origin is being described here."},{"text":"legal case","correct":false,"explanation":"A legal case is a dispute or proceeding considered by a court, rather than the rule that a source of law produces. The missing term is ‘legal rule’."}]},{"id":"b14155ba-6793-4e9a-a762-7eb2d32408ce","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What must a long-established practice satisfy to become legal custom?","back":"

Certainty
Continuity
Reasonableness

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Certainty
Continuity
Reasonableness

","correct":true,"explanation":"For a practice to become legal custom, it must be certain, continuous and reasonable. These requirements prevent vague, abandoned or unfair practices from gaining legal recognition."},{"text":"

Certainty
Consistency
Reasonableness

","correct":false,"explanation":"Consistency is relevant to an established practice, but it is not the required criterion listed here. Legal custom requires certainty, continuity and reasonableness."},{"text":"

Popularity
Continuity
Reasonableness

","correct":false,"explanation":"Popularity does not make a practice legally binding. The practice must instead satisfy certainty, continuity and reasonableness before it can qualify as legal custom."},{"text":"

Certainty
Continuity
Convenience

","correct":false,"explanation":"Convenience is not a legal requirement for custom and could allow an insufficiently established practice to qualify. The recognised requirements are certainty, continuity and reasonableness."}]},{"id":"f7375b6e-9b1c-409d-9977-caea31b5a26c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is a habit not automatically legal custom?","back":"It must be legally recognised.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It must be legally recognised.","correct":true,"explanation":"Repeated behaviour becomes a legal custom only when the legal system recognises it as having binding force, rather than treating it as merely habitual social practice."},{"text":"It must be regularly repeated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repetition may establish a habit, but repetition alone does not give it legal force. The practice must be legally recognised before it can constitute legal custom."},{"text":"It must be socially accepted.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social acceptance can make a practice conventional, but it does not automatically make it law. A custom must be legally recognised to acquire binding legal status."},{"text":"It must be morally justified.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral approval is not the test for legal custom, since law and morality are distinct. The decisive requirement is that the practice must be legally recognised."}]},{"id":"e136a995-68c8-4198-91dc-e7451d290bb3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which source creates rules in an Act of Parliament?","back":"Statute law.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Statute law.","correct":true,"explanation":"An Act of Parliament is primary legislation, so the legal rules contained within it form part of statute law enacted by Parliament."},{"text":"Common law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Common law develops through judicial decisions rather than through Acts passed by Parliament. Rules created in an Act of Parliament are statute law."},{"text":"Delegated legislation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delegated legislation is made under authority granted by an Act, usually by ministers or public bodies. The rules in the Act itself are statute law."},{"text":"Equity law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equity developed historically through judicial principles designed to supplement the common law. Rules enacted directly in an Act of Parliament are statute law."}]},{"id":"219be710-039e-4d5c-9a5b-d8e36cdc8d7c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Courts applying valid Acts of Parliament even if policy seems unwise reflects [ ].","back":"Courts applying valid Acts of Parliament even if policy seems unwise reflects parliamentary supremacy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"parliamentary supremacy","correct":true,"explanation":"Parliamentary supremacy means Parliament is the supreme law-making body. Courts must apply a valid Act even when judges consider its policy unwise or undesirable."},{"text":"judicial activism","correct":false,"explanation":"Judicial activism involves judges taking an active role in developing or interpreting law. Applying an Act despite policy objections instead demonstrates parliamentary supremacy."},{"text":"executive supremacy","correct":false,"explanation":"The executive does not possess supreme legislative authority in the UK constitution. Courts applying valid Acts reflects Parliament’s superior law-making authority and therefore parliamentary supremacy."},{"text":"popular sovereignty","correct":false,"explanation":"Popular sovereignty locates ultimate authority directly in the people. The legal obligation to apply valid Acts concerns Parliament’s supreme legislative authority, known as parliamentary supremacy."}]},{"id":"f0e286fb-1ce1-46b0-bd21-88f3ee87bd9b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What may happen if statutory wording is unclear?","back":"Judges must interpret it, reducing certainty.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Judges must interpret it, reducing certainty.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ambiguous statutory language requires judges to determine Parliament’s intended meaning using interpretative approaches. Different possible interpretations can make the law less predictable and reduce certainty."},{"text":"MPs must rewrite it, restoring certainty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parliament may later amend unclear legislation, but MPs are not required to rewrite it whenever ambiguity arises. Courts initially resolve the problem through statutory interpretation."},{"text":"Juries must interpret it, reducing certainty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Juries determine disputed facts rather than the legal meaning of legislation. Statutory interpretation is performed by judges, and competing interpretations can reduce legal certainty."},{"text":"Judges must ignore it, preserving certainty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judges cannot disregard a valid statutory provision merely because its wording is unclear. They must interpret its meaning, although this process may reduce legal certainty."}]},{"id":"2d9e0c94-aaee-4258-b015-8e2c3ade6679","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which source develops law through judges’ decisions in cases?","back":"Common law.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Common law.","correct":true,"explanation":"Common law is developed through judicial decisions in individual cases. Those decisions can establish legal principles that later courts follow through the doctrine of precedent."},{"text":"Statute law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Statute law consists of rules enacted by Parliament in legislation, not rules developed by judges through deciding cases. Judicially developed law is common law."},{"text":"Delegated legislation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delegated legislation is created by ministers or authorised bodies using powers granted by Parliament. Law developed through judges’ decisions is instead common law."},{"text":"Customary law.","correct":false,"explanation":"Customary law originates in established practices that receive legal recognition, rather than directly from judicial decisions. Case-based judicial development is characteristic of common law."}]},{"id":"8e5926b8-e9c4-475b-9fc8-fec0c5e9ec72","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What allows an earlier case to be used as authority later?","back":"A precedent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A precedent.","correct":true,"explanation":"A precedent is an earlier judicial decision used as authority when a later court considers a case involving sufficiently similar material facts and legal issues."},{"text":"A statute.","correct":false,"explanation":"A statute is legislation enacted by Parliament, not an earlier case used as authority. An authoritative judicial decision capable of guiding later cases is a precedent."},{"text":"A convention.","correct":false,"explanation":"A convention is a generally non-legal constitutional practice and does not describe authority derived from an earlier case. Such case-based authority is called a precedent."},{"text":"A custom.","correct":false,"explanation":"A custom is an established practice that may gain legal recognition, not a decided case used by another court. The relevant case-based authority is a precedent."}]},{"id":"6b649014-0ef6-4dbf-a7b3-13c9f122e655","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means “stand by decided matters” and supports consistency.","back":"Stare decisis means “stand by decided matters” and supports consistency.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Stare decisis","correct":true,"explanation":"Stare decisis is the doctrine of standing by decided matters. Following authoritative earlier decisions promotes consistency, predictability and equal treatment in similar cases."},{"text":"Ratio decidendi","correct":false,"explanation":"Ratio decidendi means the legal reason for a decision, which may form the binding part of a precedent. “Stand by decided matters” translates as stare decisis."},{"text":"Obiter dicta","correct":false,"explanation":"Obiter dicta are judicial comments made by the way and are generally persuasive rather than binding. The doctrine of standing by decided matters is stare decisis."},{"text":"Res judicata","correct":false,"explanation":"Res judicata prevents parties from relitigating a matter that has already been finally decided. The doctrine supporting consistency by following decided cases is stare decisis."}]},{"id":"1626636e-7719-44e6-8499-615b02ea95fd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What principle did Donoghue v Stevenson help develop?","back":"A manufacturer may owe consumers a duty of care.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A manufacturer may owe consumers a duty of care.","correct":true,"explanation":"Donoghue v Stevenson established that manufacturers may owe a duty of care to the ultimate consumer where harm from negligence is reasonably foreseeable."},{"text":"A manufacturer is strictly liable for all consumer injuries.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case developed liability in negligence, which requires breach of a duty of care and resulting damage. It did not impose automatic strict liability for every consumer injury."},{"text":"A manufacturer owes consumers a contractual duty.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mrs Donoghue had no contract with the manufacturer, which made contractual liability unavailable. The case instead established that a manufacturer may owe consumers a duty of care."},{"text":"A retailer alone may owe consumers a duty of care.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case rejected the idea that responsibility rests only with the immediate retailer. It established that a manufacturer may also owe the ultimate consumer a duty of care."}]},{"id":"701e4365-5afa-486d-8eb7-8d436dbbb315","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What old common law rule did R v R remove?","back":"A husband could not be guilty of raping his wife.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A husband could not be guilty of raping his wife.","correct":true,"explanation":"In R v R [1991], the House of Lords abolished the common law marital rape exemption, confirming that marriage does not imply irrevocable consent to sexual intercourse."},{"text":"A husband could not be guilty of assaulting his wife.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the marital rape exemption with liability for non-sexual violence. R v R removed the rule that a husband could not be guilty of raping his wife."},{"text":"A husband could not be guilty of stealing from his wife.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly applies the historical doctrine of marital unity to property offences. R v R abolished the exemption preventing a husband from being guilty of raping his wife."},{"text":"A husband could not be guilty of murdering his wife.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes the marital rape exemption for immunity from homicide liability. R v R removed the rule that a husband could not be guilty of raping his wife."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Nature of law","title":"Nature of law Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"8647ed49-dbae-579d-a35f-2c8863c596e9","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]