33:I[196793,["/_next/static/chunks/1xyh1u_ku6jw-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2_6olli-sutu3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1qp4g--o6-1vf.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0psy-n5us57a4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3mz725-y91ph6.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2x_dbpl3b_l2r.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0nojijad0occ8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/19ua1o9n5v3ho.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zkcxwtbsqliz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3yfg2hrj9oxbd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/35s1d7gs3nyqk.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/38w1x0vrld4-w.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3jpl-42mbad5n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3kzt2piec6aoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2lsi6eli88uwt.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2os7nxouq91eq.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ml3vooxhiupb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/04zr-wqafvwoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36r9y5g_s4k64.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/40lyu17d590zu.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2g-t2n9ahs3tn.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2mv9l1xl_aa4j.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/44w2c3xxfw4wd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/16jtsbm2g52s0.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/05mo4k9k-ry1n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0v4byuex1x38h.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2eanemqjnv2vr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2f3ohq_f1uov2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0llqhg6-bxn_b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2dx-vzwyw9a3g.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0qeo40bqomvxa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ku-vdy4ggo41.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1coblm1-go81_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/27ftpb6yvr6lz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0k-y_4mcfub-p.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1o4x0l2qh0ta-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3it1o0ex-l5qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2gqripb6ybmw9.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2l63yczi1z2qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/075i0tnxt4not.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1eyu-5752jh17.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1of_-ow2iz1cj.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ybwgs28on6c8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/13gj59kzq50t_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1986062z5zb0v.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0uitbylhcd4am.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0wv8cpdr6cvhr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/06b61oz__qen3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a4x2f2g83l7b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1lsxkfxy262n-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3q5gc8lbwr4b4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0dspbdeiizrn3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2yss1g0cimuwe.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0e7v08pdxbxe2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36nndwkz7iik3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zg1om_k0m5zv.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2fnth9-t6i7kd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/24srd-xd1m5z8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a57o9qvnv-nb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/41hx021qkamew.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ksyn9m68446d.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788"],"Gingerbread"] 35:I[647935,["/_next/static/chunks/1xyh1u_ku6jw-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2_6olli-sutu3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1qp4g--o6-1vf.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0psy-n5us57a4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3mz725-y91ph6.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2x_dbpl3b_l2r.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0nojijad0occ8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/19ua1o9n5v3ho.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zkcxwtbsqliz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3yfg2hrj9oxbd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/35s1d7gs3nyqk.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/38w1x0vrld4-w.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3jpl-42mbad5n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3kzt2piec6aoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2lsi6eli88uwt.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2os7nxouq91eq.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ml3vooxhiupb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/04zr-wqafvwoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36r9y5g_s4k64.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/40lyu17d590zu.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2g-t2n9ahs3tn.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2mv9l1xl_aa4j.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/44w2c3xxfw4wd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/16jtsbm2g52s0.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/05mo4k9k-ry1n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0v4byuex1x38h.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2eanemqjnv2vr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2f3ohq_f1uov2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0llqhg6-bxn_b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2dx-vzwyw9a3g.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0qeo40bqomvxa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ku-vdy4ggo41.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1coblm1-go81_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/27ftpb6yvr6lz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0k-y_4mcfub-p.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1o4x0l2qh0ta-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3it1o0ex-l5qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2gqripb6ybmw9.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2l63yczi1z2qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/075i0tnxt4not.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1eyu-5752jh17.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1of_-ow2iz1cj.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ybwgs28on6c8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/13gj59kzq50t_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1986062z5zb0v.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0uitbylhcd4am.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0wv8cpdr6cvhr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/06b61oz__qen3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a4x2f2g83l7b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1lsxkfxy262n-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3q5gc8lbwr4b4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0dspbdeiizrn3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2yss1g0cimuwe.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0e7v08pdxbxe2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36nndwkz7iik3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zg1om_k0m5zv.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2fnth9-t6i7kd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/24srd-xd1m5z8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a57o9qvnv-nb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/41hx021qkamew.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ksyn9m68446d.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788"],"RecordResourceResume"] 36:I[830476,["/_next/static/chunks/1xyh1u_ku6jw-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2_6olli-sutu3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1qp4g--o6-1vf.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0psy-n5us57a4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3mz725-y91ph6.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2x_dbpl3b_l2r.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0nojijad0occ8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/19ua1o9n5v3ho.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zkcxwtbsqliz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3yfg2hrj9oxbd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/35s1d7gs3nyqk.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/38w1x0vrld4-w.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3jpl-42mbad5n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3kzt2piec6aoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2lsi6eli88uwt.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2os7nxouq91eq.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ml3vooxhiupb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/04zr-wqafvwoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36r9y5g_s4k64.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/40lyu17d590zu.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2g-t2n9ahs3tn.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2mv9l1xl_aa4j.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/44w2c3xxfw4wd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/16jtsbm2g52s0.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/05mo4k9k-ry1n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0v4byuex1x38h.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2eanemqjnv2vr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2f3ohq_f1uov2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0llqhg6-bxn_b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2dx-vzwyw9a3g.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0qeo40bqomvxa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ku-vdy4ggo41.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1coblm1-go81_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/27ftpb6yvr6lz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0k-y_4mcfub-p.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1o4x0l2qh0ta-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3it1o0ex-l5qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2gqripb6ybmw9.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2l63yczi1z2qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/075i0tnxt4not.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1eyu-5752jh17.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1of_-ow2iz1cj.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ybwgs28on6c8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/13gj59kzq50t_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1986062z5zb0v.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0uitbylhcd4am.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0wv8cpdr6cvhr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/06b61oz__qen3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a4x2f2g83l7b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1lsxkfxy262n-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3q5gc8lbwr4b4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0dspbdeiizrn3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2yss1g0cimuwe.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0e7v08pdxbxe2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36nndwkz7iik3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zg1om_k0m5zv.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2fnth9-t6i7kd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/24srd-xd1m5z8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a57o9qvnv-nb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/41hx021qkamew.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ksyn9m68446d.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788"],"FlashcardAccessBranch"] 37:I[315438,["/_next/static/chunks/1xyh1u_ku6jw-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2_6olli-sutu3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1qp4g--o6-1vf.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0psy-n5us57a4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3mz725-y91ph6.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2x_dbpl3b_l2r.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0nojijad0occ8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/19ua1o9n5v3ho.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zkcxwtbsqliz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3yfg2hrj9oxbd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/35s1d7gs3nyqk.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/38w1x0vrld4-w.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3jpl-42mbad5n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3kzt2piec6aoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2lsi6eli88uwt.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2os7nxouq91eq.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ml3vooxhiupb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/04zr-wqafvwoa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36r9y5g_s4k64.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/40lyu17d590zu.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2g-t2n9ahs3tn.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2mv9l1xl_aa4j.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/44w2c3xxfw4wd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/16jtsbm2g52s0.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/05mo4k9k-ry1n.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0v4byuex1x38h.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2eanemqjnv2vr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2f3ohq_f1uov2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0llqhg6-bxn_b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2dx-vzwyw9a3g.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0qeo40bqomvxa.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ku-vdy4ggo41.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1coblm1-go81_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/27ftpb6yvr6lz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0k-y_4mcfub-p.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1o4x0l2qh0ta-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3it1o0ex-l5qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2gqripb6ybmw9.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2l63yczi1z2qz.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/075i0tnxt4not.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1eyu-5752jh17.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1of_-ow2iz1cj.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3ybwgs28on6c8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/13gj59kzq50t_.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1986062z5zb0v.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0uitbylhcd4am.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0wv8cpdr6cvhr.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/06b61oz__qen3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a4x2f2g83l7b.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1lsxkfxy262n-.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/3q5gc8lbwr4b4.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0dspbdeiizrn3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2yss1g0cimuwe.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0e7v08pdxbxe2.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/36nndwkz7iik3.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0zg1om_k0m5zv.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/2fnth9-t6i7kd.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/24srd-xd1m5z8.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/0a57o9qvnv-nb.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/41hx021qkamew.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788","/_next/static/chunks/1ksyn9m68446d.js?dpl=nogit-1791882788"],"TopicFlashcardRunner"] 24:[["$","$L33",null,{"feature":"flashcards"}],"$L34",["$","$L35",null,{"href":"/a-level/law/aqa/defences-necessity-defences/flashcards","label":"Defences: necessity defences","subjectCode":"a_level_law__aqa","surface":"flashcards"}],["$","$L36",null,{"runner":["$","div",null,{"className":"min-h-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden bg-background","children":["$","$L37",null,{"decks":[{"id":"170864ac-d66f-4703-9439-176db23a6495","title":"Defences: necessity defences Flashcards","topicId":"d35f3dfb-256c-53ca-b77c-1ed764895278","topicSlug":"defences-necessity-defences","cards":[{"id":"b2e9e890-f705-4193-9b57-4628333699e1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What rule did R v Howe [1987] set for duress?","back":"Duress is unavailable for murder.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Duress is unavailable for murder.","correct":true,"explanation":"R v Howe [1987] established that duress cannot provide a defence to murder, whether the defendant is the principal offender or an accomplice."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for manslaughter.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses murder with manslaughter, for which duress may be available. R v Howe [1987] established that duress is unavailable for murder."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for attempted murder.","correct":false,"explanation":"That rule was established by R v Gotts [1992], not R v Howe [1987]. Howe established that duress is unavailable for murder."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for violent offences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress is not excluded from every offence involving violence. R v Howe [1987] specifically established that duress is unavailable for murder."}]},{"id":"e3693476-1d52-4c6a-9853-fc7561c045dc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What rule did R v Gotts [1992] set for duress?","back":"Duress is unavailable for attempted murder.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Duress is unavailable for attempted murder.","correct":true,"explanation":"R v Gotts [1992] extended the restriction on duress to attempted murder, preventing the defence even though the victim is not killed."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for murder.","correct":false,"explanation":"That principle comes from R v Howe [1987]. R v Gotts [1992] established the related rule that duress is unavailable for attempted murder."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for manslaughter.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress may be raised in relation to manslaughter if its requirements are satisfied. R v Gotts [1992] instead excluded duress for attempted murder."},{"text":"Duress is unavailable for grievous bodily harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"The exclusion does not generally cover grievous bodily harm. R v Gotts [1992] established that duress is unavailable specifically for attempted murder."}]},{"id":"6d125ae6-5160-496b-a02d-ead9b0fb4a10","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"For duress by threats, what level of threatened harm is required?","back":"Death or serious injury must be threatened.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Death or serious injury must be threatened.","correct":true,"explanation":"Duress by threats requires a threat of death or serious physical injury. Lesser harms do not create the extreme pressure necessary for the defence."},{"text":"Any physical injury must be threatened.","correct":false,"explanation":"A threat of minor physical injury is insufficient because the threshold is deliberately high. Death or serious injury must be threatened for duress by threats."},{"text":"Property or financial loss must be threatened.","correct":false,"explanation":"Threats to property or finances do not satisfy the required level of harm. Duress by threats requires a threat of death or serious injury."},{"text":"Shame or reputational damage must be threatened.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear of exposure or humiliation does not meet the legal threshold for duress. The defendant must face a threat of death or serious injury."}]},{"id":"6b7c114e-f7c9-443d-aade-d99059908957","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Threats to [ ] or [ ] are not enough for duress by threats.","back":"Threats to property or shaming are not enough for duress by threats.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Threats to property or shaming are not enough for duress by threats.","correct":true,"explanation":"Duress by threats is restricted to threats of death or serious injury. Threatened property damage or shaming therefore cannot provide the necessary type of harm."},{"text":"Threats to life or serious injury are not enough for duress by threats.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are precisely the types of threatened harm that can support duress. Threats to property or shaming are not enough because they fall below the required threshold."},{"text":"Threats to property or serious injury are not enough for duress by threats.","correct":false,"explanation":"Property threats are insufficient, but a threat of serious injury can satisfy the defence. The two insufficient categories given here are property and shaming."},{"text":"Threats to death or shaming are not enough for duress by threats.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shaming is insufficient, but a threat of death can support duress. The categories that are both inadequate are threats to property and threats of shaming."}]},{"id":"4372e06f-4ff2-48f4-8b9d-ff9e54b1f74f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Under the Graham subjective limb, why must D have acted as they did?","back":"Because D reasonably believed they had good cause to fear death or serious injury.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Because D reasonably believed they had good cause to fear death or serious injury.","correct":true,"explanation":"The subjective limb considers D's genuine perception of the situation. D must reasonably believe there was good cause to fear death or serious injury."},{"text":"Because D reasonably believed they had good cause to fear property damage or financial loss.","correct":false,"explanation":"Property damage and financial loss fall below the threshold for duress. D must reasonably believe they had good cause to fear death or serious injury."},{"text":"Because D reasonably believed they had no opportunity to report the threat to the police.","correct":false,"explanation":"Opportunities to seek protection are relevant elsewhere in assessing duress, but this is not the subjective limb. That limb requires good cause to fear death or serious injury."},{"text":"Because D reasonably believed they had a duty to obey the person making the threat.","correct":false,"explanation":"A perceived duty to obey does not establish duress. The subjective limb requires D reasonably to believe they had good cause to fear death or serious injury."}]},{"id":"cfc0c1f6-47f1-4bc2-b0e8-d55162c6c423","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a [ ], sharing D's characteristics, would have [ ].","back":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a sober person of reasonable firmness, sharing D's characteristics, would have responded in the same way.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a sober person of reasonable firmness, sharing D's characteristics, would have responded in the same way.","correct":true,"explanation":"The objective limb compares D with a sober person of reasonable firmness who shares relevant characteristics. The defence requires that this person would have responded as D did."},{"text":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a reasonable person of unusual sensitivity, sharing D's characteristics, would have responded in the same way.","correct":false,"explanation":"The standard does not assume unusual sensitivity, which would make the test too lenient. It uses a sober person of reasonable firmness who would have responded in the same way."},{"text":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a sober person of reasonable firmness, sharing D's characteristics, would have foreseen the same threat.","correct":false,"explanation":"The limb tests the firmness of D's response, not merely whether the danger was foreseeable. It asks whether the comparator would have responded in the same way."},{"text":"The Graham objective limb asks whether a person sharing all of D's weaknesses, sharing D's characteristics, would have committed any similar offence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The comparator does not inherit every weakness, and the inquiry concerns D's particular response. It is a sober person of reasonable firmness responding in the same way."}]},{"id":"32c10acf-a543-4602-aab1-20072deeea5d","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"For duress by threats, who can be the target of the threat?","back":"

D
D's immediate family
Someone D feels responsible for

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

D
D's immediate family
Someone D feels responsible for

","correct":true,"explanation":"The threatened death or serious injury may be directed at D, D's immediate family, or another person for whose safety D reasonably feels responsible."},{"text":"

D
D's immediate family
Any member of the public

","correct":false,"explanation":"The target cannot automatically be any member of the public without a relevant connection to D. It may be D, immediate family, or someone D feels responsible for."},{"text":"

D
D's property
Someone D feels financially dependent on

","correct":false,"explanation":"Threats to property are insufficient, and financial dependence is not the relevant relationship. The threat may target D, immediate family, or someone D feels responsible for."},{"text":"

D's employer
D's distant relatives
Someone D has never met

","correct":false,"explanation":"These categories do not automatically have the necessary relationship with D, and the list wrongly omits D. Valid targets include D, immediate family, and someone D feels responsible for."}]},{"id":"ae8d3ea2-5fbe-460f-8fbb-124fa0801c01","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What must the nexus requirement link in duress by threats?","back":"The threat must link directly to the specific crime committed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The threat must link directly to the specific crime committed.","correct":true,"explanation":"The nexus requirement demands a direct connection between the threat and the particular offence. A general atmosphere of intimidation is insufficient without pressure to commit that specific crime."},{"text":"The threat must link directly to the general criminal lifestyle.","correct":false,"explanation":"A broad connection to criminal activity does not satisfy the nexus requirement. The threat must be directed towards securing D's commission of the specific crime committed."},{"text":"The threat must link directly to the identity of the victim.","correct":false,"explanation":"The victim's identity is not what the nexus requirement connects to the threat. The required link is between the threat and the specific crime D committed."},{"text":"The threat must link directly to the defendant's previous offences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Previous offending is not the required object of the nexus. The threat must directly relate to the specific crime for which D now seeks to rely on duress."}]},{"id":"fe3dcda1-f1cf-4941-82c3-ffa6cec2fa18","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Under R v Gill [1963], what happens if D has a safe avenue of escape?","back":"The defence fails; D must take the safe escape.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The defence fails; D must take the safe escape.","correct":true,"explanation":"A safe avenue of escape means D can avoid the threatened harm without committing the offence. Under R v Gill, failing to use it prevents the defence from succeeding."},{"text":"The defence succeeds; D may ignore the safe escape.","correct":false,"explanation":"The availability of a safe escape does not preserve duress; it defeats the defence because D could avoid offending. The correct rule is that the defence fails and D must take it."},{"text":"The defence fails; D must confront the threatening person.","correct":false,"explanation":"D is not required to confront the threatener, but must use a genuinely safe route away from the danger. The correct rule is that the defence fails if a safe escape exists."},{"text":"The defence succeeds; D must report the safe escape.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reporting an escape route is not the legal requirement, and a safe route defeats rather than supports the defence. D must take the safe escape, so the defence fails."}]},{"id":"f3263dbc-a14c-4607-aeab-09c77fab1de5","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be [ ] when the crime is [ ].","back":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be effective when the crime is committed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be effective when the crime is committed.","correct":true,"explanation":"The threat must operate on D at the time of offending, making it effective when the crime is committed. A past or no-longer-operative threat cannot normally establish duress."},{"text":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be immediate when the crime is committed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case does not require the threat to be immediate in the sense of instantaneous violence. It must be effective when the crime is committed, including a continuing threat of serious harm."},{"text":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be credible when the crime is planned.","correct":false,"explanation":"Credibility and advance planning do not state the relevant timing rule. The threat must be effective when the crime is committed, so it actually influences D at that point."},{"text":"Under R v Hudson and Taylor [1971], a duress threat must be specific when the crime is anticipated.","correct":false,"explanation":"A threat need not be framed as a specific anticipated event for this rule. The key requirement is that it is effective when the offence is committed."}]},{"id":"6d23c4b0-2955-4f3a-ad60-c9ae81518a28","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress [ ] and bar the [ ].","back":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress self-induced and bar the defence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress self-induced and bar the defence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Voluntarily associating with criminals can make the risk of coercion self-induced. Under R v Hasan, that prior conduct may prevent D relying on the defence of duress."},{"text":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress unavoidable and bar the prosecution.","correct":false,"explanation":"Joining the gang does not make the pressure legally unavoidable or prevent the prosecution proceeding. It may make the duress self-induced, which bars D from relying on the defence."},{"text":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress reasonable and bar the sentence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The issue is not whether the duress is reasonable or whether sentencing is barred. Voluntary involvement can make the duress self-induced and prevent reliance on the defence."},{"text":"Under R v Hasan [2005], voluntarily joining a criminal gang can make duress temporary and bar the conviction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Temporary pressure does not automatically prevent conviction, and the case does not describe the effect in those terms. The relevant consequence is self-induced duress barring the defence."}]},{"id":"333fd686-0eac-4d58-b977-e59e8f052c42","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the Graham objective limb criticised after R v Bowen [1996]?","back":"It can exclude low IQ or mental health issues, punishing less firm defendants.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can exclude low IQ or mental health issues, punishing less firm defendants.","correct":true,"explanation":"The objective limb generally excludes characteristics such as low intelligence or mental health problems. Critics argue this may punish defendants who are less able to resist threats."},{"text":"It can include low IQ or mental health issues, excusing less firm defendants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The criticism is that these personal vulnerabilities are excluded, not included, by the objective limb. The correct answer says this can punish defendants with low IQ or mental health issues."},{"text":"It can exclude age or pregnancy, punishing less firm defendants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Age and pregnancy may be relevant characteristics under the objective limb, unlike low IQ or mental health issues. The criticism focuses on excluding those psychological or intellectual vulnerabilities."},{"text":"It can ignore the seriousness of the threat, rewarding less firm defendants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The objective limb does consider the seriousness of the threat; the criticism concerns excluding low IQ or mental health issues. This exclusion may disadvantage defendants who are less able to resist."}]},{"id":"0d2f1f09-6988-4383-aded-48625499f883","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Characteristics such as [ ] and [ ] may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","back":"Characteristics such as age and pregnancy may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Characteristics such as age and pregnancy may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","correct":true,"explanation":"The objective limb uses the reasonable person standard but allows relevant characteristics such as age and pregnancy to be considered when assessing how a person might respond."},{"text":"Characteristics such as low IQ and mental illness may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","correct":false,"explanation":"Low IQ and mental illness are commonly criticised as excluded personal characteristics in the objective limb. The recognised examples here are age and pregnancy."},{"text":"Characteristics such as wealth and occupation may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","correct":false,"explanation":"Financial position and occupation are not the characteristic examples relevant to this objective test. Age and pregnancy may be considered because they can affect the defendant’s capacity to withstand pressure."},{"text":"Characteristics such as intelligence and criminal record may be considered in the Graham objective limb.","correct":false,"explanation":"The objective limb does not generally personalise the reasonable person by reference to intelligence or criminal record. The accepted examples in this context are age and pregnancy."}]},{"id":"b57a9eac-5300-4023-a434-a6740e265365","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does duress of circumstances differ from duress by threats?","back":"The situation, not a person, forces D to offend to avoid death or serious injury.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The situation, not a person, forces D to offend to avoid death or serious injury.","correct":true,"explanation":"Duress of circumstances arises from an emergency or dangerous situation rather than a threat made by a particular person. D offends to avoid death or serious injury."},{"text":"A person, not a situation, forces D to offend to avoid death or serious injury.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the distinction. A person making threats gives rise to duress by threats, whereas duress of circumstances is caused by the situation itself."},{"text":"The court, not a person, forces D to offend to avoid death or serious injury.","correct":false,"explanation":"The court does not force D to commit the offence; the pressure comes from the surrounding emergency. The correct distinction is that the situation, not a person, creates the compulsion."},{"text":"The victim, not a situation, forces D to offend to avoid death or serious injury.","correct":false,"explanation":"The victim is not the defining source of pressure in this defence. Duress of circumstances involves danger created by the situation, while threats by a person amount to duress by threats."}]},{"id":"cac74160-4d18-417f-be95-804a7aa4a19a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which test applies to duress of circumstances?","back":"The Graham test.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The Graham test.","correct":true,"explanation":"Duress of circumstances uses the same two-limb approach associated with R v Graham: a subjective belief in serious harm and an objective reasonable-person assessment."},{"text":"The Majewski test.","correct":false,"explanation":"Majewski concerns the effect of voluntary intoxication on basic and specific intent offences, not the test for duress of circumstances. The applicable test is the Graham test."},{"text":"The Woolmington test.","correct":false,"explanation":"Woolmington establishes the general burden on the prosecution to prove guilt, subject to exceptions. It is not the specific test for duress of circumstances, which uses Graham."},{"text":"The Fagan test.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fagan concerns the continuing act principle for criminal liability, not duress. Duress of circumstances is assessed using the Graham test."}]},{"id":"a656746c-88ea-4256-a371-c8c6c6e5b2dc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In R v Willer [1986], why did D drive on the pavement?","back":"To escape a gang of youths surrounding his car.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To escape a gang of youths surrounding his car.","correct":true,"explanation":"In R v Willer, D drove on the pavement because a gang of youths surrounded his car. The unusual driving was intended to escape the immediate danger."},{"text":"To escape a police roadblock blocking his route.","correct":false,"explanation":"A police roadblock was not the danger that prompted the driving in R v Willer. D acted to escape a gang of youths surrounding his car, which created the emergency."},{"text":"To avoid a motorist threatening him with a weapon.","correct":false,"explanation":"The case involved a group surrounding D’s car rather than one armed motorist. The correct factual reason was escaping a gang of youths surrounding his car."},{"text":"To reach a hospital during a medical emergency.","correct":false,"explanation":"The driving was not justified by a medical emergency or a need to reach hospital. D drove on the pavement to escape the gang of youths surrounding his car."}]},{"id":"b67ee983-704f-45d9-997e-31fb60129533","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In R v Conway [1989], why did D drive recklessly?","back":"He thought his passenger was about to be shot by hitmen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"He thought his passenger was about to be shot by hitmen.","correct":true,"explanation":"The perceived threat from hitmen led Conway to drive recklessly to protect his passenger. The court accepted that duress of circumstances could apply to reckless driving."},{"text":"He thought his passenger was about to suffer a heart attack.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the case with necessity arising from a medical emergency. Conway drove recklessly because he believed hitmen were about to shoot his passenger."},{"text":"He thought his passenger was about to be arrested by police.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding a lawful arrest would not provide the relevant defence. Conway acted because he believed his passenger faced an imminent threat of being shot by hitmen."},{"text":"He thought his passenger was about to be abducted by strangers.","correct":false,"explanation":"The perceived danger was not abduction. Conway believed hitmen were about to shoot his passenger, creating the threat relied upon for duress of circumstances."}]},{"id":"2c52e5ce-bff6-4d12-9330-b904d22c7b32","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is English law's position on choosing the lesser of two evils as a general defence?","back":"No general necessity defence is recognised.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"No general necessity defence is recognised.","correct":true,"explanation":"English law does not recognise a broad defence simply because the defendant chose the lesser of two evils, although limited necessity-based defences exist in exceptional circumstances."},{"text":"A complete necessity defence is recognised.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating necessity as a complete general defence overstates English law. No general necessity defence is recognised, although necessity may operate in narrowly defined situations."},{"text":"A partial necessity defence is recognised.","correct":false,"explanation":"English law has not created a general partial defence that automatically reduces liability. Its position is that no general necessity defence is recognised."},{"text":"A statutory necessity defence is recognised.","correct":false,"explanation":"There is no general statutory defence permitting the lesser evil to be chosen. English law recognises no general necessity defence, relying instead on limited exceptions."}]},{"id":"754b1937-0564-46fa-aac5-a9616033f03b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Re A (Conjoined Twins) [2000] allow doctors to do?","back":"Separate conjoined twins, knowing one would die to save the other.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Separate conjoined twins, knowing one would die to save the other.","correct":true,"explanation":"The court authorised separation because one twin’s dependence was killing the other, and separation offered the stronger twin her only chance of survival despite the inevitable death."},{"text":"Separate conjoined twins, knowing both were likely to die during surgery.","correct":false,"explanation":"The operation was authorised because it would save one twin, not because both were likely to die during surgery. One twin’s death was inevitable if separation occurred."},{"text":"Refuse to separate conjoined twins, although one could survive without the other.","correct":false,"explanation":"The court did not require doctors to refuse treatment. It authorised separation because one twin could survive independently, while continued joining would eventually kill both."},{"text":"Separate conjoined twins, provided both were expected to survive surgery.","correct":false,"explanation":"Survival of both twins was not expected or required. The court allowed separation while knowing that one twin would die so that the other could live."}]},{"id":"3cbc3d1b-c818-4dad-89c2-38206f41d618","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take an [ ] life to preserve their [ ].","back":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take an innocent life to preserve their own life.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take an innocent life to preserve their own life.","correct":true,"explanation":"The House of Lords used this moral principle to justify excluding duress as a defence to murder: a person must not intentionally kill an innocent victim to save themselves."},{"text":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take a guilty life to preserve their own life.","correct":false,"explanation":"The principle concerns the killing of an innocent person, not someone judged guilty. Howe states that no-one should take an innocent life to preserve their own."},{"text":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take an innocent life to preserve their property.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ruling addresses a defendant killing under threats to their life, rather than protecting property. The stated principle is that an innocent life cannot be taken to preserve one’s own life."},{"text":"In R v Howe, the House of Lords said no-one should take a criminal life to preserve their reputation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither criminality nor reputation expresses the principle in Howe. The House of Lords said no-one should take an innocent life to preserve their own life."}]},{"id":"a6626205-bd7a-44de-bb98-e0d24490d757","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is excluding duress from murder criticised as harsh?","back":"A person forced to kill may lack free will for liability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A person forced to kill may lack free will for liability.","correct":true,"explanation":"The criticism is that extreme threats can deprive the defendant of meaningful freedom of choice, making full murder liability appear harsh despite the intentional killing."},{"text":"A person forced to kill may lack factual causation for liability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Duress does not normally break factual causation because the defendant still performs the act causing death. The criticism is that coercion may deprive them of free will."},{"text":"A person forced to kill may lack legal capacity for liability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Being threatened does not generally remove legal capacity in the way infancy or insanity might. The harshness arises because the defendant may lack free will under coercion."},{"text":"A person forced to kill may lack mens rea for liability.","correct":false,"explanation":"A coerced killer may still intend to kill and therefore possess mens rea. The criticism instead focuses on whether threats deprived the defendant of free will."}]},{"id":"14ea37e6-9a3e-433b-a368-70ee5eef682f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What reform has the Law Commission suggested for duress and murder?","back":"Make duress a partial defence, reducing murder to manslaughter.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Make duress a partial defence, reducing murder to manslaughter.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Law Commission proposed recognising coercion without granting a complete acquittal. Duress would reduce murder to manslaughter, allowing the circumstances to affect conviction and sentence."},{"text":"Make duress a complete defence, resulting in a full acquittal.","correct":false,"explanation":"A complete defence would remove all criminal liability, which is not the suggested compromise. The Law Commission proposed a partial defence reducing murder to manslaughter."},{"text":"Make duress an aggravating factor, increasing the murder sentence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Coercion reduces rather than increases the defendant’s moral blameworthiness. The proposed reform is to make duress a partial defence, reducing murder to manslaughter."},{"text":"Make duress a procedural defence, preventing a murder trial.","correct":false,"explanation":"The proposal concerns the substantive offence and resulting conviction, not whether a trial can occur. Duress would operate as a partial defence reducing murder to manslaughter."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-20","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Defences: necessity defences","title":"Defences: necessity defences Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/law/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"d35f3dfb-256c-53ca-b77c-1ed764895278","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]