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Buffered data is saved.
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Buffered data is saved.
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File contents are encrypted.
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Stored records are sorted.
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Unused data is deleted.
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The reader must follow exactly the same structure used by the writer."},{"text":"The default structure of the language.","correct":false,"explanation":"A programming language cannot infer an arbitrary binary file’s format automatically. The file must be read with the same structure and field order used to write it."}]},{"id":"b145196f-5393-4cd8-8147-b2ef6b98d985","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does an ADT leave unspecified?","back":"The exact memory arrangement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The exact memory arrangement.","correct":true,"explanation":"An ADT defines permitted values and operations through an interface, but it does not prescribe the underlying memory layout or concrete implementation used to provide them."},{"text":"The exact set of permitted operations.","correct":false,"explanation":"The permitted operations are a defining part of an ADT, not something left unspecified. What remains unspecified is the exact memory arrangement used by its implementation."},{"text":"The exact behaviour of each operation.","correct":false,"explanation":"An ADT must specify what its operations do so users can rely on them. It leaves the underlying memory arrangement and implementation details unspecified."},{"text":"The exact type of values stored.","correct":false,"explanation":"The kinds of values represented are part of an ADT’s logical definition. The detail it leaves unspecified is the exact arrangement of those values in memory."}]},{"id":"076ea593-3b39-4dd4-bd32-ce1b9d3473f9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a stack, which item is removed first?","back":"The most recently added item.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The most recently added item.","correct":true,"explanation":"A stack follows last in, first out, so the item most recently pushed onto the stack is the first item removed by a pop operation."},{"text":"The first added item.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing the first-added item describes first in, first out queue behaviour. A stack is last in, first out, so it removes the most recently added item."},{"text":"The smallest stored item.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses a stack with a priority-based structure. Stack removal depends only on insertion order, with the most recently added item removed first."},{"text":"The largest stored item.","correct":false,"explanation":"A stack does not compare item values when choosing what to remove. It follows last in, first out, removing the most recently added item first."}]},{"id":"699f6d64-ddc8-475f-bf3e-244236256f6d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a queue, which item is removed first?","back":"The first added item.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The first added item.","correct":true,"explanation":"A queue follows first in, first out, so the item that has waited longest, having been added first, is the first item removed."},{"text":"The most recently added item.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing the most recently added item describes last in, first out stack behaviour. A queue removes the first-added item according to first in, first out."},{"text":"The highest-value stored item.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a possible priority-queue rule rather than an ordinary queue. A standard queue removes items by arrival order, starting with the first added."},{"text":"The lowest-value stored item.","correct":false,"explanation":"An ordinary queue does not compare stored values to select an item. It follows first in, first out, so the first-added item is removed first."}]},{"id":"69ee58a3-bdaa-475b-8583-78d8e53889da","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a priority queue, which item is removed first?","back":"The item with the highest priority.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The item with the highest priority.","correct":true,"explanation":"A priority queue orders items by priority, so the item judged most important is removed before items with lower priority."},{"text":"The item with the lowest priority.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the queue’s ordering rule. Items with the highest priority are removed first, while lower-priority items remain in the queue."},{"text":"The most recently added item.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a stack-like last-in, first-out rule rather than priority ordering. A priority queue removes the highest-priority item, regardless of when it was added."},{"text":"The item with the shortest data value.","correct":false,"explanation":"The size or length of the stored data does not determine removal order. Priority values control which item is removed first."}]},{"id":"e7fcbcfa-6426-45b3-8ed8-3496d9512f4f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A graph contains [ ] joined by [ ].","back":"A graph contains vertices joined by edges.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A graph contains vertices joined by edges.","correct":true,"explanation":"Vertices are the points or nodes in a graph, and edges are the connections between them. These two components form the basic graph structure."},{"text":"A graph contains edges joined by vertices.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the roles of the two graph components. Vertices are the entities being connected, while edges represent the connections between them."},{"text":"A graph contains stacks joined by queues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stacks and queues are linear abstract data types, not the components used to define a graph. Graphs consist of vertices connected by edges."},{"text":"A graph contains vertices joined by weights.","correct":false,"explanation":"A weight can label an edge but does not provide the connection itself. Edges join vertices, with weights optionally describing their cost or value."}]},{"id":"0b2b91da-4491-4b35-9b88-3f88b165cad8","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a tree, what is a node with no children called?","back":"A leaf node.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A leaf node.","correct":true,"explanation":"A leaf is a node with no children. It appears at the end of a branch in a tree and cannot have any further child nodes."},{"text":"A root node.","correct":false,"explanation":"The root is the highest node in a tree and has no parent, but it can have children. A node with no children is called a leaf."},{"text":"A branch node.","correct":false,"explanation":"A branch node normally refers to a node that leads to one or more child nodes. The term for a node with no children is leaf."},{"text":"A parent node.","correct":false,"explanation":"A parent node is defined by having at least one child. Nodes without children are leaves, so parent describes the opposite relationship."}]},{"id":"43b7da60-9c1f-4300-a578-a9c0c2c05600","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a dictionary store?","back":"Key-value pairs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Key-value pairs.","correct":true,"explanation":"A dictionary associates each key with a corresponding value, allowing the value to be found efficiently using its key."},{"text":"Index-value pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Index-value storage is characteristic of arrays or lists, where positions identify elements. Dictionaries use keys, which need not be consecutive numeric indexes."},{"text":"Nodes and pointers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nodes and pointers describe linked structures, such as linked lists and trees. A dictionary stores associations between keys and their values."},{"text":"Rows and columns.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rows and columns describe tabular or two-dimensional data, such as a matrix. A dictionary instead maps each key to a value."}]},{"id":"869cba40-2159-414c-993f-1322a9690987","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] data structure has a fixed maximum size; a [ ] structure can grow or shrink during execution.","back":"A static data structure has a fixed maximum size; a dynamic structure can grow or shrink during execution.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A static data structure has a fixed maximum size; a dynamic structure can grow or shrink during execution.","correct":true,"explanation":"Static structures have their size determined in advance, whereas dynamic structures can allocate or release storage while the program runs."},{"text":"A dynamic data structure has a fixed maximum size; a static structure can grow or shrink during execution.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two definitions have been swapped. Static structures have a fixed maximum size, while dynamic structures can change size during execution."},{"text":"A linked data structure has a fixed maximum size; a linear structure can grow or shrink during execution.","correct":false,"explanation":"Linear and linked describe organisational forms, not whether storage can change size during execution. The relevant distinction is static versus dynamic."},{"text":"A static data structure has a fixed maximum size; a fixed structure can grow or shrink during execution.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first classification is correct, but fixed does not describe a structure that changes size. The second term should be dynamic."}]},{"id":"2daa15a7-d6c3-4339-aeb5-3312b13475e4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can happen if a static array is too small?","back":"Overflow.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Overflow.","correct":true,"explanation":"If a static array has no unused positions when another item must be stored, an overflow occurs because its fixed capacity has been exceeded."},{"text":"Underflow.","correct":false,"explanation":"Underflow occurs when an operation tries to remove data from an empty structure. Exceeding the capacity of a static array causes overflow."},{"text":"Automatic resizing.","correct":false,"explanation":"A static array cannot automatically increase its allocated capacity during execution. When it is too small, attempting to add more data causes overflow."},{"text":"Fragmentation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fragmentation concerns separated unused memory regions, usually in dynamic allocation. A static array that cannot hold more items experiences overflow."}]},{"id":"cb82122e-5e1f-4558-99a4-c914bcce378b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why can dynamic structures be less memory-efficient?","back":"They have extra memory overhead.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They have extra memory overhead.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dynamic structures need additional storage for information such as pointers, links, or allocation metadata, so some memory is used beyond the stored data itself."},{"text":"They have extra processing speed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dynamic allocation does not guarantee faster processing and may require extra management operations. The memory inefficiency comes from storing links or allocation metadata."},{"text":"They have a fixed maximum size.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed maximum size is a limitation associated with static structures. Dynamic structures use extra memory for management information as they change size."},{"text":"They have less memory overhead.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dynamic structures generally need more supporting memory, not less, because pointers, links, or allocation details must also be stored."}]},{"id":"3f81ae53-78c3-40c7-a880-def26cb7571d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How is an empty array-based stack initialised?","back":"Set top <- -1.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Set top <- -1.","correct":true,"explanation":"Using -1 marks an empty array-based stack because valid array indexes begin at zero. The first push increments top to the index of the first item."},{"text":"Set top <- 0.","correct":false,"explanation":"Starting at zero makes the stack appear to contain an item at the first valid index. For an empty stack, top is set to -1 before the first push."},{"text":"Set top <- 1.","correct":false,"explanation":"Starting at one skips the first array position and incorrectly suggests that an item is already present. An empty stack uses top equal to -1."},{"text":"Set top <- -2.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although negative values indicate that no valid item index is selected, -2 is not the standard empty-stack marker. With zero-based indexing, top is initialised to -1."}]},{"id":"78506b88-a516-4059-b5ad-ed2f7a72a9c2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Pushing onto a full stack causes [ ]; popping from an empty stack causes [ ].","back":"Pushing onto a full stack causes overflow; popping from an empty stack causes underflow.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Pushing onto a full stack causes overflow; popping from an empty stack causes underflow.","correct":true,"explanation":"A full stack cannot accept another item, producing overflow, while an empty stack has nothing to remove, producing underflow."},{"text":"Pushing onto a full stack causes underflow; popping from an empty stack causes overflow.","correct":false,"explanation":"These conditions are reversed: underflow occurs when removing from an empty stack, whereas overflow occurs when adding to a full stack."},{"text":"Pushing onto a full stack causes overflow; popping from an empty stack causes overflow.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first term is correct, but popping cannot cause overflow because no new item is being added; removal from an empty stack causes underflow."},{"text":"Pushing onto a full stack causes underflow; popping from an empty stack causes underflow.","correct":false,"explanation":"Underflow only describes attempting to remove from an empty structure. Attempting to push onto a full stack instead exceeds its capacity and causes overflow."}]},{"id":"9bb78c96-4b38-4db8-bf77-75b36a8fd6c9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does peek() do on a stack?","back":"Reads items[top] without removing it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reads items[top] without removing it.","correct":true,"explanation":"peek() examines the item at the top of the stack while leaving the stack unchanged, unlike pop(), which returns the top item and removes it."},{"text":"Reads items[top] and removes it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing the top item is the behaviour of pop(), not peek(). peek() reads items[top] while preserving the stack contents."},{"text":"Reads items[bottom] without removing it.","correct":false,"explanation":"peek() examines the top item, not the bottom item. The stack remains unchanged, but the relevant element is items[top]."},{"text":"Reads items[top + 1] without removing it.","correct":false,"explanation":"The top element is stored at index top, not the next index. peek() reads items[top] without changing the stack."}]},{"id":"1d26c2d6-e2d5-4c18-af2d-9a9da7ab9039","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does a circular queue use modulo arithmetic?","back":"To wrap indices back to the start.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To wrap indices back to the start.","correct":true,"explanation":"Modulo gives a remainder within the valid index range, so an index reaching the capacity can wrap back to zero and reuse earlier queue positions."},{"text":"To prevent duplicate items from entering the queue.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modulo arithmetic controls index positions rather than checking item values. Duplicate prevention requires a separate search or rule; the correct purpose is to wrap indices back to the start."},{"text":"To reverse the order of items in the queue.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modulo does not change the order in which items are removed. It keeps front and rear indices circulating through the array by wrapping them back to the start."},{"text":"To store the queue in sorted order.","correct":false,"explanation":"A circular queue does not sort its contents. Modulo arithmetic only keeps index calculations within the array by wrapping indices back to the start."}]},{"id":"d6918c60-cb5d-47ca-9e48-a52722a27b60","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the usual circular queue rear update rule?","back":"$$rear = (rear + 1) \\bmod capacity$","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$rear = (rear + 1) \\bmod capacity$","correct":true,"explanation":"The rear advances by one position, and modulo capacity wraps it to index zero when it reaches the end of the circular queue array."},{"text":"$$rear = (rear - 1) \\bmod capacity$","correct":false,"explanation":"Subtracting moves the rear backwards, which is the wrong direction for adding a new item. The usual rule increments rear and then wraps using modulo capacity."},{"text":"$$rear = (rear + 1) \\bmod (capacity - 1)$","correct":false,"explanation":"Using capacity minus one gives the wrong range and can skip or miscalculate valid positions. The modulus must be the full array capacity."},{"text":"$$rear = rear + 1$","correct":false,"explanation":"Simple incrementing works only until the array end is reached. Without modulo capacity, rear can move outside the valid index range instead of wrapping to the start."}]},{"id":"61b95d78-89b0-4adc-98a7-b3ccbf56dee7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is a hash table bucket?","back":"A location where one or more items can be stored.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A location where one or more items can be stored.","correct":true,"explanation":"A bucket is the storage location associated with a hash value. Depending on the collision-handling method, it may contain one item or several items."},{"text":"A location where exactly one item can be stored.","correct":false,"explanation":"A bucket can hold multiple items when collisions are handled by methods such as separate chaining. It is not necessarily limited to exactly one item."},{"text":"A function that converts keys into values.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hash function converts a key into a bucket index or hash value. A bucket itself is the location where one or more items can be stored."},{"text":"A pointer to the next empty table.","correct":false,"explanation":"A bucket is not a pointer or another table. It is a location within the hash table where one or more items associated with a bucket index can be stored."}]},{"id":"c76e303d-5005-489c-9b19-e57deb055d16","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When does a hash table collision occur?","back":"When different keys hash to the same bucket.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When different keys hash to the same bucket.","correct":true,"explanation":"A collision occurs when two different keys produce the same bucket index, meaning the hash table must use a collision-handling method to store both items."},{"text":"When the same key hashes to different buckets.","correct":false,"explanation":"A consistent hash function should map the same key to the same bucket. A collision instead involves different keys producing the same bucket."},{"text":"When identical values are stored in different tables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Collisions concern keys and their bucket locations within a hash table, not whether identical values appear in separate tables."},{"text":"When a bucket contains no items.","correct":false,"explanation":"An empty bucket is simply unused storage, not a collision. A collision requires different keys to hash to the same bucket."}]},{"id":"0e7aa13b-d902-4fa5-8d19-bcb6b0c1e38c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How does separate chaining handle collisions?","back":"Each bucket stores a list of items.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each bucket stores a list of items.","correct":true,"explanation":"Separate chaining gives each bucket a list, or similar linked structure, so multiple items with the same hash value can be stored together."},{"text":"Each bucket stores a single item only.","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricting a bucket to one item cannot directly accommodate collisions. Separate chaining specifically allows each bucket to store a list of items."},{"text":"Each bucket stores a stack of items.","correct":false,"explanation":"A stack imposes last-in, first-out behaviour, which is not the defining feature of separate chaining. The bucket normally stores a list of colliding items."},{"text":"Each bucket stores a queue of items.","correct":false,"explanation":"A queue imposes first-in, first-out behaviour, but separate chaining is defined by storing colliding items in a list associated with the bucket."}]},{"id":"0630ce88-c920-454d-be70-e4e25855cacf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How does linear probing handle a full bucket?","back":"It checks the next available bucket.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It checks the next available bucket.","correct":true,"explanation":"Linear probing searches sequentially through subsequent bucket positions until it finds an empty one, wrapping around if necessary."},{"text":"It checks the previous available bucket.","correct":false,"explanation":"Checking backwards is not the usual linear probing rule. Linear probing examines successive buckets after the occupied position until an available bucket is found."},{"text":"It overwrites the occupied bucket.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overwriting would lose the item already stored and is not a valid collision solution. Linear probing preserves it and checks the next available bucket."},{"text":"It creates a linked list in the bucket.","correct":false,"explanation":"Creating a linked list is separate chaining, not linear probing. Linear probing keeps the table array-based and searches subsequent bucket positions."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-06-07","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Data structures and abstract data types","title":"Data structures and abstract data types Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/computer-science/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"5c211e68-b829-50c6-ba94-62de1a03e538","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]