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The resulting proteins give each cell type its distinctive structure and function."},{"text":"They contain different genes, so make different proteins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Specialised cells generally contain the same genes, rather than different ones. They behave differently because they express different genes and therefore produce different proteins."},{"text":"They express all their genes, so make different proteins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cells do not normally express every gene simultaneously. Different cell types express particular gene sets, producing the specific proteins needed for their specialised functions."},{"text":"They translate different codons, so make different proteins.","correct":false,"explanation":"The meaning of each codon is consistent across specialised cells. Different proteins are produced because different genes are expressed, not because cells translate codons differently."}]},{"id":"58b642b3-c9c9-4a86-96c8-e43ac2b424d7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes [ ] of DNA into mRNA and [ ] of mRNA into a polypeptide.","back":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into a polypeptide.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into a polypeptide.","correct":true,"explanation":"Transcription uses a DNA template to produce mRNA, while translation uses the mRNA codon sequence to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide."},{"text":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes translation of DNA into mRNA and transcription of mRNA into a polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two processes have been reversed. DNA is transcribed into mRNA, and the mRNA is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide."},{"text":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes replication of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into a polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication produces DNA from a DNA template, not mRNA. Gene expression begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, followed by translation into a polypeptide."},{"text":"For protein-coding genes, gene expression includes transcription of DNA into mRNA and replication of mRNA into a polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication copies nucleic acids and does not assemble polypeptides. DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is translated at a ribosome into a polypeptide."}]},{"id":"cd25684b-7e9c-4827-9e5b-279a9bca45c6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of [ ], which may change the protein's [ ].","back":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of codons, which may change the protein's amino acid sequence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of codons, which may change the protein's amino acid sequence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Changing a gene’s nucleotide sequence can alter its codons. Different codons may specify different amino acids, changing the protein’s primary structure and potentially its function."},{"text":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of anticodons, which may change the protein's amino acid sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anticodons occur on tRNA molecules and are not the triplets within the mutated gene. A gene mutation changes codons, potentially altering the protein’s amino acid sequence."},{"text":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of codons, which may change the protein's nucleotide sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proteins are composed of amino acids, not nucleotides. Altered codons may therefore change the protein’s amino acid sequence, affecting its structure and function."},{"text":"A gene mutation can change the sequence of anticodons, which may change the protein's nucleotide sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses both stages: genes contain codons rather than tRNA anticodons, and proteins contain amino acids rather than nucleotides. The correct sequences are codons and amino acids."}]},{"id":"7e12b375-86f7-465d-895f-c2eb770ba04c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might a nucleotide substitution have no effect on the protein?","back":"The genetic code is degenerate, so the new codon may code for the same amino acid.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The genetic code is degenerate, so the new codon may code for the same amino acid.","correct":true,"explanation":"Most amino acids are specified by more than one codon. A substitution can therefore create a different codon that still adds the same amino acid."},{"text":"The genetic code is universal, so the new codon may code for the same amino acid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Universality means codons usually have the same meanings in different organisms, not that several codons specify one amino acid. Degeneracy explains a silent substitution."},{"text":"The genetic code is non-overlapping, so the new codon may code for the same amino acid.","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-overlapping code means each nucleotide belongs to only one codon. Degeneracy, where multiple codons specify the same amino acid, explains why the protein may be unchanged."},{"text":"The genetic code is unambiguous, so the new codon may code for the same amino acid.","correct":false,"explanation":"An unambiguous code means each codon specifies only one amino acid. The relevant property is degeneracy, because different codons can specify the same amino acid."}]},{"id":"725b29a3-01dc-49f0-81c6-7e69cf6f831a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happens if a substitution creates a stop codon?","back":"Translation stops early, producing a shortened polypeptide.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Translation stops early, producing a shortened polypeptide.","correct":true,"explanation":"A stop codon recruits a release factor rather than an aminoacyl-tRNA. Translation terminates prematurely, producing a shorter polypeptide that is often non-functional."},{"text":"Translation starts again, producing a repeated polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"A stop codon terminates translation and does not restart it. If created within the coding sequence, it causes early termination and produces a shortened polypeptide."},{"text":"Translation continues normally, producing an unchanged polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"A newly created stop codon is recognised as a termination signal, so translation cannot continue normally. It stops early and produces a shortened polypeptide."},{"text":"Translation shifts frame, producing a lengthened polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"A substitution does not insert or remove nucleotides, so it does not cause a frameshift. A new stop codon instead terminates translation early, shortening the polypeptide."}]},{"id":"4c60e7fe-d63b-4f28-8604-ca115dc044c0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can an amino acid change in an enzyme active site reduce function?","back":"It can change the active site's shape, reducing enzyme function.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can change the active site's shape, reducing enzyme function.","correct":true,"explanation":"Changing an active-site amino acid can alter bonding and the enzyme’s tertiary structure. The substrate then binds less effectively, reducing catalysis and enzyme function."},{"text":"It can change the substrate's shape, reducing enzyme function.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mutation changes the enzyme, not the substrate molecule. It may alter the active site’s shape so the substrate is no longer sufficiently complementary."},{"text":"It can change the gene's location, reducing enzyme function.","correct":false,"explanation":"An amino acid substitution affects the enzyme’s primary structure rather than relocating its gene. Function falls if the change alters the active site’s shape or chemistry."},{"text":"It can change the product's sequence, reducing enzyme function.","correct":false,"explanation":"The enzyme catalyses conversion of a substrate but does not determine a product’s sequence in this way. An active-site amino acid change can alter active-site shape."}]},{"id":"f50c7b24-4098-480f-8805-f5b62d06d8c2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a [ ], so [ ] may change.","back":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a frameshift, so every codon after the mutation may change.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a frameshift, so every codon after the mutation may change.","correct":true,"explanation":"Codons are read in groups of three nucleotides. Adding or removing a non-multiple of three shifts this grouping, potentially changing every downstream codon."},{"text":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a base substitution, so every codon after the mutation may change.","correct":false,"explanation":"A base substitution replaces one nucleotide and is not caused by insertion or deletion. A non-multiple-of-three insertion or deletion causes a frameshift affecting downstream codons."},{"text":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a frameshift, so only the mutated codon may change.","correct":false,"explanation":"A frameshift changes how all subsequent nucleotides are grouped into triplets, not merely the codon at the mutation. Every codon after it may therefore change."},{"text":"An insertion or deletion not in a multiple of three causes a silent mutation, so every codon before the mutation may change.","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-multiple-of-three insertion or deletion causes a frameshift, not necessarily a silent mutation. Codons before the mutation remain unchanged, while downstream codons may change."}]},{"id":"6ed13b39-d26e-4b9e-91ab-25dcaad9389e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the likely effect of inserting or deleting exactly three nucleotides?","back":"One amino acid is added or removed without shifting the reading frame.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"One amino acid is added or removed without shifting the reading frame.","correct":true,"explanation":"Three nucleotides form one codon, so inserting or deleting exactly three adds or removes one amino acid. Subsequent codons remain in the original reading frame."},{"text":"Three amino acids are added or removed without shifting the reading frame.","correct":false,"explanation":"Three nucleotides constitute one codon and therefore usually specify one amino acid, not three. The reading frame remains unchanged while one amino acid is added or removed."},{"text":"One amino acid is added or removed while shifting the reading frame.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although one amino acid is usually added or removed, three nucleotides make a complete codon. The downstream reading frame therefore does not shift."},{"text":"Every amino acid after it is changed by shifting the reading frame.","correct":false,"explanation":"A frameshift occurs only when the number inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three. Exactly three nucleotides alter one amino acid without shifting downstream codons."}]},{"id":"1c0bb015-e954-4c59-90bf-1e9eadd7ae72","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is a mutation not automatically harmful?","back":"

Effect depends on the protein change.
Effect also depends on the environment.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Effect depends on the protein change.
Effect also depends on the environment.

","correct":true,"explanation":"A mutation’s consequences depend on how it alters the encoded protein and on environmental conditions, which may make the resulting phenotype harmful, neutral or beneficial."},{"text":"

Effect depends on the speed of DNA replication.
Effect also depends on the age of the cell.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Mutations are not judged by how quickly DNA replicates or by the age of the cell. Their effects depend on any protein change and the environment in which it acts."},{"text":"

Effect depends on the chromosome number.
Effect also depends on the mutation frequency.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome number and mutation frequency do not determine whether an individual mutation is harmful. Its effect depends on the resulting protein change and the environmental conditions."},{"text":"

Effect depends on the position in the nucleus.
Effect also depends on the size of the cell.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A mutation’s position within the nucleus and the cell’s size do not establish its effect. Harm depends on how the protein is altered and on the environment."}]},{"id":"dd25f461-d133-4828-9f1b-8b89dbbc424e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"At the [ ] level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the [ ] level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","back":"At the transcriptional level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the post-translational level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"At the transcriptional level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the post-translational level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","correct":true,"explanation":"Transcriptional control determines whether DNA is transcribed into mRNA. Post-translational control acts after translation by altering the activity, stability or location of existing proteins."},{"text":"At the post-transcriptional level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the translational level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","correct":false,"explanation":"Post-transcriptional control acts on RNA after it has been transcribed, so it does not describe deciding whether mRNA is made. Existing protein activity is controlled post-translationally."},{"text":"At the translational level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the post-transcriptional level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","correct":false,"explanation":"Translational control determines whether or how efficiently mRNA is translated into polypeptides, not whether mRNA is made. Protein activity after synthesis is regulated post-translationally."},{"text":"At the post-translational level, cells control whether mRNA is made from DNA; at the transcriptional level, cells control activity of proteins already made.","correct":false,"explanation":"Post-translational control cannot determine whether mRNA is initially made because it occurs after protein synthesis. That decision is transcriptional, while existing proteins are controlled post-translationally."}]},{"id":"dcdc456f-ea5e-4c1c-b38e-06f21ddc3c24","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the lac operon, where does RNA polymerase bind?","back":"The promoter.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The promoter.","correct":true,"explanation":"RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, a DNA sequence positioned before the structural genes, to initiate their transcription when the operator is not blocked."},{"text":"The operator.","correct":false,"explanation":"The operator is the binding site for the repressor, not RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase binds the promoter to begin transcription of the structural genes."},{"text":"The regulatory gene.","correct":false,"explanation":"The regulatory gene is transcribed to produce mRNA encoding the repressor; it is not the polymerase-binding site. RNA polymerase binds the promoter."},{"text":"The structural gene.","correct":false,"explanation":"Structural genes encode the enzymes involved in lactose metabolism, although RNA polymerase travels along them during transcription. Its initial binding site is the promoter."}]},{"id":"4b998187-3142-48aa-a43a-e323d8f53516","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"In the lac operon, how is the regulatory gene different from the operator?","back":"

Regulatory gene: codes for the repressor.
Operator: DNA sequence where the repressor binds.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Regulatory gene: codes for the repressor.
Operator: DNA sequence where the repressor binds.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The regulatory gene is an expressed DNA sequence that encodes the repressor protein. The operator is a non-coding control sequence to which that repressor binds."},{"text":"

Regulatory gene: site where the repressor binds.
Operator: codes for the repressor protein.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These roles are reversed: the operator does not encode a protein, and the regulatory gene is not the repressor-binding control site. The gene encodes the repressor, which binds the operator."},{"text":"

Regulatory gene: codes for RNA polymerase.
Operator: DNA sequence where polymerase binds.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The regulatory gene encodes the repressor rather than RNA polymerase. The operator binds the repressor, whereas RNA polymerase binds to the promoter."},{"text":"

Regulatory gene: codes for lactose-metabolising enzymes.
Operator: protein that breaks down lactose.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The regulatory gene does not encode the lactose-metabolising enzymes; the structural genes do. The operator is a DNA control sequence, not the protein that breaks down lactose."}]},{"id":"779e23d8-9592-425d-8934-c1be349c660e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"When lactose is absent, how is lac operon transcription prevented?","back":"The repressor binds the operator, blocking transcription of structural genes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The repressor binds the operator, blocking transcription of structural genes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without lactose, the repressor retains a shape complementary to the operator. Its binding obstructs RNA polymerase and prevents transcription of the structural genes."},{"text":"The repressor binds the promoter, blocking transcription of structural genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The repressor binds the operator rather than the promoter. This prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the structural genes of the operon."},{"text":"The RNA polymerase binds the operator, blocking transcription of structural genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"RNA polymerase normally binds the promoter, and its binding promotes rather than blocks transcription. In lactose’s absence, the repressor binds the operator and obstructs transcription."},{"text":"The lactose binds the operator, blocking transcription of structural genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lactose is absent under these conditions, so it cannot bind the operator. Transcription is prevented because the active repressor binds the operator."}]},{"id":"d04c503d-edfa-4b09-b8a3-b0d8538027f5","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"When lactose is present, [ ] binds the repressor, so the structural genes are [ ].","back":"When lactose is present, allolactose binds the repressor, so the structural genes are transcribed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When lactose is present, allolactose binds the repressor, so the structural genes are transcribed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Allolactose acts as the inducer by binding the repressor and changing its shape. The repressor then leaves the operator, allowing the structural genes to be transcribed."},{"text":"When lactose is present, lactose binds the repressor, so the structural genes are transcribed.","correct":false,"explanation":"At this level of detail, allolactose is the inducer that binds and inactivates the repressor, rather than lactose itself. This permits transcription of the structural genes."},{"text":"When lactose is present, allolactose binds the repressor, so the structural genes are translated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Binding of allolactose permits transcription, the production of RNA from DNA. Translation occurs later when ribosomes use the resulting mRNA to produce polypeptides."},{"text":"When lactose is present, RNA polymerase binds the repressor, so the structural genes are transcribed.","correct":false,"explanation":"RNA polymerase binds the promoter, not the repressor. Allolactose binds and alters the repressor, allowing RNA polymerase to transcribe the structural genes."}]},{"id":"387dd7fe-cf94-4d6b-84b3-4f59a714f735","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Transcription factors bind to [ ] and increase or decrease the rate of [ ] of target genes.","back":"Transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences and increase or decrease the rate of transcription of target genes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences and increase or decrease the rate of transcription of target genes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Transcription factors recognise particular regulatory DNA sequences near or within target genes. Their binding influences the recruitment or activity of transcription machinery, altering transcription rate."},{"text":"Transcription factors bind to specific RNA sequences and increase or decrease the rate of transcription of target genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Transcription factors regulate the production of RNA by binding specific regulatory sequences in DNA, not RNA. Their direct effect is therefore on transcription."},{"text":"Transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences and increase or decrease the rate of translation of target genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although transcription factors correctly bind specific DNA sequences, they regulate transcription rather than translation. Translation is controlled through interactions involving mRNA, ribosomes and associated factors."},{"text":"Transcription factors bind to non-specific DNA sequences and increase or decrease the rate of replication of target genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Transcription factors recognise specific regulatory DNA sequences rather than binding DNA indiscriminately, and they control transcription rather than the replication of target genes."}]},{"id":"dbc71a89-af4e-4ec4-b2e2-4b6f222de1a9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How is mature mRNA produced from primary mRNA?","back":"

Introns are removed.
Exons are joined together.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Introns are removed.
Exons are joined together.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Pre-mRNA processing removes non-coding introns through splicing. The remaining coding exons are joined to form the continuous sequence found in mature mRNA."},{"text":"

Exons are removed.
Introns are joined together.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses RNA splicing: exons are generally retained because they contribute to mature mRNA, while introns are removed and the exons are joined."},{"text":"

Introns are removed.
Introns are joined together.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Introns are correctly removed, but they are not then joined together. Splicing joins the retained exons to produce the mature mRNA sequence."},{"text":"

Exons are removed.
Exons are joined together.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Exons are not normally removed during maturation, and introns are not retained and joined. Introns are excised, while exons are spliced together."}]},{"id":"93fedd5b-9528-4637-935f-6e5392939e34","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What can incorrect intron removal do to the final protein?","back":"It may produce a non-functional protein.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may produce a non-functional protein.","correct":true,"explanation":"Incorrect intron removal can leave intron sequences in the mRNA or remove coding sequence, changing the reading frame or amino acid sequence and producing a protein that cannot function normally."},{"text":"It may produce a functional protein.","correct":false,"explanation":"Incorrect intron removal disrupts RNA processing rather than reliably producing a functional protein. Faulty splicing can alter the reading frame or amino acid sequence, commonly making the final protein non-functional."},{"text":"It may prevent transcription.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intron removal occurs during RNA processing after transcription, so the main consequence is an incorrectly spliced mRNA and potentially a non-functional protein, not the complete prevention of transcription."},{"text":"It may produce a more active protein.","correct":false,"explanation":"Incorrect splicing usually changes the mRNA sequence and may disrupt the protein’s structure or function. It does not specifically cause the final protein to become permanently more active."}]},{"id":"09caf17e-b004-4a52-a76d-faed2273cdc8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can post-translational control produce a rapid response?","back":"It changes the activity of proteins already present.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It changes the activity of proteins already present.","correct":true,"explanation":"Post-translational control modifies proteins that have already been synthesised, for example by phosphorylation. Changing their activity avoids waiting for transcription, translation and protein folding."},{"text":"It changes the transcription of genes already active.","correct":false,"explanation":"Changing transcription requires gene expression and usually takes longer than modifying an existing protein. Post-translational control is rapid because it changes the activity of proteins already present."},{"text":"It produces new proteins from existing mRNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"Producing new proteins involves transcription and translation, so it is not the rapid mechanism described. Post-translational control acts directly on proteins that are already present."},{"text":"It removes the genes for proteins already present.","correct":false,"explanation":"Destroying proteins can alter cell activity but is not the key reason post-translational control is rapid. The rapid response comes from modifying proteins already present."}]},{"id":"32fb2171-4288-4a31-95ca-7dc40e125408","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can cAMP change the activity of a target protein?","back":"cAMP activates a protein kinase, causing phosphorylation that changes protein shape or activity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"cAMP activates a protein kinase, causing phosphorylation that changes protein shape or activity.","correct":true,"explanation":"cAMP acts as a second messenger that activates a protein kinase. The kinase phosphorylates the target protein, causing a conformational change that alters its activity."},{"text":"cAMP inhibits a protein kinase, causing phosphorylation that changes protein shape or activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"cAMP commonly activates a protein kinase rather than directly inhibiting one. The kinase then phosphorylates the target protein, changing its shape or activity."},{"text":"cAMP activates a protein phosphatase, causing dephosphorylation that changes protein shape or activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Phosphatases remove phosphate groups, whereas cAMP signalling typically activates a protein kinase that adds a phosphate group to the target protein."},{"text":"cAMP binds to DNA, causing transcription that changes protein shape or activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"cAMP does not normally change target-protein activity by directly altering DNA. It activates a protein kinase, whose phosphorylation of the target produces the response."}]},{"id":"7da7eaaf-144a-43a8-b189-7374d197c65b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Homeobox sequences are [ ], and their similarity across groups supports [ ].","back":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved, and their similarity across groups supports ancient evolutionary relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved, and their similarity across groups supports ancient evolutionary relationships.","correct":true,"explanation":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved across diverse groups, indicating that they changed little during evolution. Their similarity therefore supports ancient evolutionary relationships between those groups."},{"text":"Homeobox sequences are highly variable, and their similarity across groups supports ancient evolutionary relationships.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homeobox sequences are not highly variable; their strong conservation is the evidence used to infer shared ancestry. Similar sequences support ancient evolutionary relationships, not recent independent origins."},{"text":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved, and their similarity across groups supports recent convergent evolution.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sequences’ similarity reflects conservation rather than convergent evolution. Their conservation supports ancient evolutionary relationships because related groups inherited them from an earlier common ancestor."},{"text":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved, and their similarity across groups supports unrelated evolutionary origins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homeobox sequences are highly conserved, but their similarity indicates shared ancestry rather than unrelated origins. The evidence supports ancient evolutionary relationships between groups."}]},{"id":"de594086-3578-4c3b-85d2-54bf74d1518c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What body-plan feature do animal Hox genes help control?","back":"The identity of body regions along the anterior-posterior axis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The identity of body regions along the anterior-posterior axis.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hox genes provide positional information along the anterior-posterior axis, helping cells develop the characteristic identity of each body region during animal development."},{"text":"The number of body regions along the anterior-posterior axis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes specify which body region develops in each position, rather than directly controlling the total number of segments. Segment number is influenced by other developmental processes and genes."},{"text":"The left-right orientation of body regions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes mainly determine regional identity along the anterior-posterior axis. They do not primarily establish the organism’s left-right orientation, which uses different signalling systems."},{"text":"The temperature of body regions along the anterior-posterior axis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes assign identities to positions along the anterior-posterior axis, rather than controlling body temperature. Temperature regulation is a physiological process involving nervous and endocrine control."}]},{"id":"0f24cfc8-dcdd-41d4-9f48-a53f44552fda","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do Hox genes affect cell identity during embryo development?","back":"They switch target genes on or off in particular embryo regions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They switch target genes on or off in particular embryo regions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hox proteins act as transcription factors. In particular embryo regions, they bind regulatory DNA and switch specific target genes on or off, causing cells to acquire different identities."},{"text":"They translate target mRNA directly in particular embryo regions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes influence cell identity by regulating target-gene transcription, not by directly translating mRNA. Translation occurs at ribosomes after gene expression has been regulated."},{"text":"They remove target genes from the genome in particular embryo regions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes regulate which target genes are expressed in different regions. They do not remove all DNA from particular embryo regions to establish cell identity."},{"text":"They make all cells divide continuously in particular embryo regions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes help specify regional identity by regulating transcription, not by causing every cell in a region to divide continuously. Cell division and identity are separate processes."}]},{"id":"c783056a-cff6-4782-8234-e9f3a867d865","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What may happen if a Hox gene is non-functional where normally active?","back":"Cells may develop as the wrong body region, altering the body plan.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cells may develop as the wrong body region, altering the body plan.","correct":true,"explanation":"A non-functional Hox gene may fail to activate or repress the genes needed for a region’s identity. Cells can then adopt the identity of another body region, changing the body plan."},{"text":"Cells may develop as the correct body region, preserving the body plan.","correct":false,"explanation":"Loss of Hox-gene function does not usually make cells develop as the correct body region. It can remove positional instructions, causing another body-region identity to appear instead."},{"text":"Cells may all die as the same body region, altering the body plan.","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-functional Hox gene mainly causes an identity or positional defect, not necessarily the death of every affected cell. Cells may survive while developing as the wrong body region."},{"text":"Cells may develop as the opposite sex, altering the body plan.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hox genes regulate regional identity rather than directly determining the sex of cells. Their loss can transform one body-region identity into another and disrupt the body plan."}]},{"id":"a32270c0-fbdd-4177-a80d-90ec77b169ee","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How do mitosis and apoptosis together help form the correct body shape?","back":"

Mitosis adds cells where growth is needed.
Apoptosis removes unwanted cells, sculpting tissues.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Mitosis adds cells where growth is needed.
Apoptosis removes unwanted cells, sculpting tissues.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitosis increases cell number in growing tissues, while apoptosis removes selected cells. Coordinating both processes allows tissues to be shaped accurately and unwanted cells to be eliminated."},{"text":"

Mitosis removes unwanted cells, sculpting tissues.
Apoptosis adds cells where growth is needed.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis produces additional cells rather than removing them, and apoptosis removes cells rather than adding them. Reversing these roles would not accurately shape the body."},{"text":"

Mitosis adds cells where growth is needed.
Apoptosis adds unwanted cells, enlarging tissues.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Both processes do not add cells: mitosis increases cell number, whereas apoptosis is programmed cell death. Apoptosis is essential for removing surplus cells and sculpting tissues."},{"text":"

Mitosis removes unwanted cells, sculpting tissues.
Apoptosis causes cells to divide where growth is needed.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis is not programmed cell death, and apoptosis does not cause cell division. Their complementary roles are growth through mitosis and tissue sculpting through apoptosis."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-06-07","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Cellular control","title":"Cellular control Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/biology/ocr/a/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"5f427e90-3f15-5ba5-91e4-ef8482e0879e","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]