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occupies about 90% of the cell cycle and includes growth, normal cell activity, and DNA replication before mitosis begins."},{"text":"Cells spend about 10% of their life in mitosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"A 10% estimate reverses the usual proportions and incorrectly identifies mitosis as the longest stage. Cells spend about 90% of their life in interphase."},{"text":"Cells spend about 75% of their life in interphase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although interphase is the correct stage, 75% underestimates its typical duration. The accepted approximate figure is 90% of the cell’s life."},{"text":"Cells spend about 90% of their life in mitosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis is relatively brief, so it does not occupy 90% of the cell cycle. The long phase is interphase, which accounts for about 90%."}]},{"id":"dad05dd2-fc23-4273-932c-8b37be36fa8b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which interphase sub-phase copies every chromosome before division?","back":"S phase.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"S phase.","correct":true,"explanation":"During S phase, the cell copies its DNA, producing two identical copies of each chromosome before the cell divides."},{"text":"G1 phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"G1 is mainly a growth and biosynthesis phase before DNA copying begins. Chromosome duplication occurs during S phase, not G1."},{"text":"G2 phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"G2 follows DNA replication and prepares the cell for mitosis, but it does not copy every chromosome. That copying takes place in S phase."},{"text":"M phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"M phase contains mitosis and cytokinesis, when the copied chromosomes are separated and cells divide. Chromosome copying has already occurred during S phase."}]},{"id":"67836672-3431-4acc-9d90-68a1e088d925","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two [ ] joined at a [ ].","back":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at a centromere.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at a centromere.","correct":true,"explanation":"DNA replication creates two genetically identical sister chromatids, which remain joined at the centromere until they separate during cell division."},{"text":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two homologous chromosomes joined at a telomere.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes are the maternal and paternal versions of a chromosome, not the identical copies produced by replication. The copies are sister chromatids joined at a centromere."},{"text":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two daughter chromosomes joined at a spindle fibre.","correct":false,"explanation":"Two daughter chromosomes are formed after chromatids separate, not immediately after replication. Replication produces sister chromatids joined at a centromere."},{"text":"After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two chromatin fibres joined at a kinetochore.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromatin is the less condensed form of DNA, while a kinetochore is a protein structure involved in spindle attachment. The replicated chromosome has sister chromatids joined at a centromere."}]},{"id":"ceb3ac49-5978-448c-b63c-4ee3f3e23cfa","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens if a cell fails the $G_1$ checkpoint?","back":"It enters $G_0$, a non-dividing state.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It enters $G_0$, a non-dividing state.","correct":true,"explanation":"Failure at the G1 checkpoint prevents the cell entering the division cycle. It enters G0, a non-dividing state, where it may remain temporarily or permanently."},{"text":"It enters $G_2$, a preparation phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"G2 is a later checkpoint after DNA replication, so it is not the immediate outcome of failing G1. The cell enters G0 instead."},{"text":"It enters $S$, the DNA-replication phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"S phase is when DNA is replicated, but a cell failing G1 does not proceed to this phase. It leaves the cycle and enters G0."},{"text":"It enters $M$, the mitotic phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis is the chromosome-separation stage and should not begin after a failed G1 checkpoint. The cell enters G0, a non-dividing state."}]},{"id":"ff508d91-730a-47a3-a30f-414cc7a39593","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can the $G_2$ checkpoint halt a cell before mitosis?","back":"DNA replication errors or incomplete replication must be repaired first.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"DNA replication errors or incomplete replication must be repaired first.","correct":true,"explanation":"The G2 checkpoint checks that DNA replication is complete and accurate. Replication errors or incomplete replication must be repaired before mitosis proceeds."},{"text":"Spindle attachment errors or incomplete replication must be repaired first.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle attachment is checked at the metaphase checkpoint, not G2. The G2 checkpoint is concerned with complete, accurate DNA replication before mitosis."},{"text":"Cytoplasmic division errors or incomplete replication must be repaired first.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cytoplasmic division occurs during cytokinesis after mitosis, so it is not the reason G2 halts the cell. G2 checks DNA replication accuracy and completion."},{"text":"Chromosome alignment errors or incomplete replication must be repaired first.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome alignment is assessed at metaphase, not during G2. The G2 checkpoint halts the cycle when DNA replication is inaccurate or incomplete."}]},{"id":"73333b50-a277-4280-ac68-f604b6a30b25","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What must the metaphase checkpoint confirm before chromosome separation?","back":"All chromosomes are attached to spindle fibres and aligned at the equator.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"All chromosomes are attached to spindle fibres and aligned at the equator.","correct":true,"explanation":"The metaphase checkpoint prevents separation until every chromosome is correctly attached to spindle fibres and positioned at the cell equator."},{"text":"Half the chromosomes are attached to spindle fibres and aligned at the equator.","correct":false,"explanation":"Checking only half the chromosomes could allow unattached chromosomes to segregate incorrectly. The checkpoint must confirm that all chromosomes are attached and aligned."},{"text":"All chromosomes have completed DNA replication and are aligned at the equator.","correct":false,"explanation":"The metaphase checkpoint concerns chromosome attachment and alignment, not DNA replication. Replication is checked earlier, particularly at the G2 checkpoint."},{"text":"All chromosomes have reached opposite poles and are attached to spindle fibres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres and align at the equator during metaphase; they move towards opposite poles during anaphase. The checkpoint acts before that separation."}]},{"id":"44105728-b063-47c1-843d-9ba8303f595b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] is nuclear division; [ ] is cytoplasmic division.","back":"Mitosis is nuclear division; cytokinesis is cytoplasmic division.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mitosis is nuclear division; cytokinesis is cytoplasmic division.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitosis divides the nucleus and separates the replicated chromosomes, whereas cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells."},{"text":"Cytokinesis is nuclear division; mitosis is cytoplasmic division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm, not the nucleus. Mitosis is the nuclear division stage, so the two terms have been reversed here."},{"text":"Interphase is nuclear division; binary fission is cytoplasmic division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interphase is the period of growth, normal activity, and DNA replication; it does not divide either the nucleus or cytoplasm. Mitosis and cytokinesis perform these divisions."},{"text":"Meiosis is nuclear division; interphase is cytoplasmic division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis is a specialised nuclear division producing haploid cells, while cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm. The standard terms for these processes here are mitosis and cytokinesis."}]},{"id":"ed8c24cf-3c7c-4743-8e8a-6e39f88d4c22","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In prophase, what makes chromosomes visible under a light microscope?","back":"Chromatin condenses, shortening and thickening into chromosomes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Chromatin condenses, shortening and thickening into chromosomes.","correct":true,"explanation":"During prophase, chromatin coils and condenses, making the chromosomes shorter, thicker, and sufficiently distinct to be visible with a light microscope."},{"text":"DNA replicates, shortening and thickening into chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication creates duplicated chromosomes during S phase, but it does not by itself make them visible. Visibility in prophase results from chromatin condensation."},{"text":"The nuclear envelope breaks down, shortening and thickening into chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosomes become visible before the nuclear envelope breaks down; envelope breakdown allows spindle fibres access later. Condensation is what makes them distinct."},{"text":"Spindle fibres attach, shortening and thickening into chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle fibres attach to chromosomes and help move them, but they do not cause chromosomes to become visibly shorter and thicker. Chromatin condenses during prophase."}]},{"id":"74a4339f-d8f2-45ed-9f5e-6477bfee51bd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"During metaphase, where are chromosomes pulled into line?","back":"The metaphase plate, or equator.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The metaphase plate, or equator.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spindle fibres position the chromosomes along the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane at the cell’s equator, before sister chromatids separate during anaphase."},{"text":"The spindle poles, at either end.","correct":false,"explanation":"The poles are where spindle fibres originate and where chromatids move during anaphase. During metaphase, chromosomes instead align at the metaphase plate, or equator."},{"text":"The nuclear envelope, around the nucleus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The nuclear envelope breaks down before metaphase and is not the site of chromosome alignment. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, or equator."},{"text":"The centrosomes, beside the nucleus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The centrosomes organise spindle microtubules but do not form the line of chromosome alignment. Chromosomes are pulled into line at the metaphase plate, or equator."}]},{"id":"1c35f926-560c-4df0-9a92-f725ed8a4133","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens to centromeres at the start of anaphase?","back":"They split, allowing sister chromatids to separate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They split, allowing sister chromatids to separate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Centromeres divide at the start of anaphase, releasing the sister chromatids so spindle fibres can pull them towards opposite poles of the cell."},{"text":"They replicate, producing additional sister chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"Centromeres do not replicate during anaphase; DNA replication occurs during interphase. They split at anaphase, allowing sister chromatids to separate."},{"text":"They contract, pulling sister chromatids together.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle fibres shorten during anaphase, but the centromeres themselves do not contract. They split, releasing the sister chromatids so they can move apart."},{"text":"They attach, connecting sister chromatids to spindle fibres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosomes attach to spindle microtubules through kinetochores before anaphase. At the start of anaphase, centromeres split, allowing sister chromatids to separate."}]},{"id":"e9ea011b-7df9-4a72-8064-fbb51483e0eb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does cytokinesis divide an animal cell?","back":"Actin filaments contract to form a cleavage furrow.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Actin filaments contract to form a cleavage furrow.","correct":true,"explanation":"A contractile ring of actin filaments tightens beneath the animal cell membrane, producing a cleavage furrow that separates the cytoplasm into two daughter cells."},{"text":"Spindle microtubules contract to form a cleavage furrow.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle microtubules separate chromosomes rather than dividing the cytoplasm. Animal cytokinesis occurs when actin filaments contract to form a cleavage furrow."},{"text":"Golgi vesicles fuse to form a cleavage furrow.","correct":false,"explanation":"Golgi vesicles form a cell plate during plant cytokinesis, not a cleavage furrow in animals. Animal cells divide when actin filaments contract."},{"text":"Intermediate filaments contract to form a cleavage furrow.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intermediate filaments provide mechanical support and do not produce the contractile ring. Actin filaments contract to form the cleavage furrow in animal cells."}]},{"id":"965a4722-cbdb-4c97-bdc5-6ec3a22b5395","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does cytokinesis divide a plant cell?","back":"Golgi vesicles fuse to form a cell plate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Golgi vesicles fuse to form a cell plate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Golgi-derived vesicles gather and fuse at the cell’s equator, producing a cell plate that develops into new membranes and a wall between the daughter cells."},{"text":"Actin filaments contract to form a cell plate.","correct":false,"explanation":"A cleavage furrow is used in animal cells because they lack a rigid wall. Plant cytokinesis instead involves Golgi vesicles fusing to form a cell plate."},{"text":"Spindle microtubules fuse to form a cell plate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle microtubules move chromosomes and help position the division plane, but they do not construct it. Golgi vesicles fuse to form the plant cell plate."},{"text":"Cellulose fibres fuse to form a cell plate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cellulose is later deposited as the new wall, but cellulose fibres do not fuse to initiate cytokinesis. Golgi vesicles first form the cell plate."}]},{"id":"ddbbb0d6-9337-4316-bd05-822b311ffe7b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is the root tip used to observe mitosis?","back":"Apical meristem cells are actively undergoing mitosis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Apical meristem cells are actively undergoing mitosis.","correct":true,"explanation":"The apical meristem is a region of rapid growth containing many cells in different stages of mitosis, making dividing chromosomes readily observable."},{"text":"Root cap cells are actively undergoing mitosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Root cap cells protect the growing tip and are not the main region of cell division. Apical meristem cells are actively undergoing mitosis."},{"text":"Xylem vessel cells are actively undergoing mitosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Xylem vessel cells are highly differentiated and dead at maturity, so they cannot divide. Actively dividing cells are found in the apical meristem."},{"text":"Root hair cells are actively undergoing mitosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Root hair cells are specialised for absorption and have differentiated rather than remaining highly mitotic. Apical meristem cells actively undergo mitosis."}]},{"id":"68f182e4-dc22-4be9-9e45-2a6c6bab599b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is HCl used in a root tip squash?","back":"It hydrolyses the middle lamella, letting cells separate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It hydrolyses the middle lamella, letting cells separate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hydrochloric acid hydrolyses the pectin-rich middle lamella between adjacent plant cells, allowing the tissue to separate when it is squashed."},{"text":"It stains the condensed chromosomes, letting cells become visible.","correct":false,"explanation":"A DNA-specific stain makes chromosomes visible; hydrochloric acid is not used as the stain. It hydrolyses the middle lamella so cells can separate."},{"text":"It dissolves the cellulose cell wall, letting cells separate.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cellulose cell wall must remain sufficiently intact for individual cells to be observed. HCl hydrolyses the middle lamella, allowing adjacent cells to separate."},{"text":"It arrests cells in metaphase, letting chromosomes align.","correct":false,"explanation":"Colchicine can arrest cells in metaphase by disrupting spindle formation, but HCl does not. HCl hydrolyses the middle lamella so cells separate during squashing."}]},{"id":"80a5e878-72d6-4614-9ae8-a1d57069baa8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Mitotic index = [ ] / [ ].","back":"Mitotic index = number of cells containing visible chromosomes / total number of cells in the field of view.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mitotic index = number of cells containing visible chromosomes / total number of cells in the field of view.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cells with visible condensed chromosomes are undergoing mitosis. Dividing this count by the total number of cells gives the proportion of observed cells in mitosis."},{"text":"Mitotic index = number of cells containing visible chromosomes / total number of cells in interphase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using only interphase cells as the denominator excludes the mitotic cells and does not calculate a proportion of all cells. The denominator must be the total number observed."},{"text":"Mitotic index = number of visible chromosomes in the cells / total number of cells in the field of view.","correct":false,"explanation":"Counting individual chromosomes measures chromosome abundance, not how many cells are dividing. The numerator must be cells containing visible chromosomes, divided by all cells observed."},{"text":"Mitotic index = total number of cells in the field of view / number of cells containing visible chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the required ratio and can produce a value above one. Mitotic index is mitotic cells, identified by visible chromosomes, divided by total cells."}]},{"id":"645a4c76-2362-4cef-8b71-dc030c30b225","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What three biological roles does mitosis serve?","back":"

Growth of multicellular organisms.
Tissue repair by replacing damaged cells.
Asexual reproduction producing clones.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Growth of multicellular organisms.
Tissue repair by replacing damaged cells.
Asexual reproduction producing clones.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitosis increases cell number for growth, replaces damaged or lost cells during tissue repair, and produces genetically identical offspring in asexual reproduction."},{"text":"

Gamete production in reproductive organs.
Genetic variation by crossing over.
Fertilisation producing a zygote.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Gamete production and genetic variation are primarily roles of meiosis, while fertilisation combines gametes. Mitosis instead supports growth, tissue repair and asexual reproduction."},{"text":"

Protein synthesis using ribosomes.
Aerobic respiration releasing cellular energy.
Active transport moving mineral ions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Protein synthesis, aerobic respiration and active transport are cellular metabolic processes rather than biological roles of mitosis. Mitosis serves growth, tissue repair and asexual reproduction."},{"text":"

DNA replication before nuclear division.
Cell differentiation producing specialised cells.
Programmed cell death removing cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication precedes mitosis, cell differentiation usually follows division, and programmed cell death removes cells. Mitosis itself enables growth, tissue repair and asexual reproduction."}]},{"id":"ac15db6a-1452-453e-9f33-038a6cf08828","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why must gametes be haploid before fertilisation?","back":"Meiosis halves chromosome number, so fertilisation restores diploid $2n$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Meiosis halves chromosome number, so fertilisation restores diploid $2n$.","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid, preventing chromosome number from doubling every generation. Fusion of two haploid gametes during fertilisation restores the diploid number, $2n$."},{"text":"Mitosis maintains chromosome number, so fertilisation restores diploid $2n$.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis produces genetically identical diploid cells and does not prepare gametes with a reduced chromosome number. Without meiosis, fertilisation would double the chromosome number rather than restore diploid $2n$."},{"text":"Meiosis increases genetic variation, so fertilisation restores diploid $2n$.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis does create genetic variation, but variation is not the reason gametes must be haploid. The chromosome number must be halved so fertilisation restores diploid $2n$."},{"text":"Fertilisation halves chromosome number, so meiosis restores diploid $2n$.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fertilisation combines two gamete nuclei; it does not halve chromosome number. Meiosis must halve the chromosome number first so fertilisation can restore diploid $2n$."}]},{"id":"db14390a-4e5d-455b-9a31-570bbee4bd3e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happens at chiasmata during crossing over?","back":"Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of alleles.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of alleles.","correct":true,"explanation":"At a chiasma, non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding DNA segments. This crossing over creates chromatids with new combinations of alleles."},{"text":"Sister chromatids exchange segments of alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids are genetically identical copies produced during DNA replication and are not the chromatids that normally exchange segments during crossing over. The exchange occurs between non-sister chromatids."},{"text":"Homologous chromosomes exchange segments of alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis I, but crossing over occurs between their non-sister chromatids rather than between entire homologous chromosomes. The exchanged material consists of corresponding DNA segments."},{"text":"Centromeres exchange segments of alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Centromeres join sister chromatids and do not exchange allele segments at chiasmata. Crossing over involves non-sister chromatids belonging to a pair of homologous chromosomes."}]},{"id":"aae5e4e4-82e7-4a35-8778-8a5d6ed30075","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Random alignment of [ ] in Metaphase I causes [ ].","back":"Random alignment of homologous pairs in Metaphase I causes independent assortment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Random alignment of homologous pairs in Metaphase I causes independent assortment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Homologous chromosome pairs align randomly at the equator in Metaphase I. Their independent orientation means maternal and paternal chromosomes are assorted independently into the resulting cells."},{"text":"Random alignment of sister chromatids in Metaphase I causes independent assortment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids separate in Meiosis II, not during the Metaphase I alignment of homologous pairs. Random orientation of homologous pairs produces independent assortment."},{"text":"Random alignment of homologous pairs in Metaphase I causes crossing over.","correct":false,"explanation":"Crossing over results from exchange between non-sister chromatids at chiasmata, not from the random alignment itself. Random alignment of homologous pairs causes independent assortment."},{"text":"Random alignment of homologous pairs in Metaphase I causes DNA replication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random alignment in Metaphase I changes which homologous chromosomes enter each daughter cell, so it creates independent assortment rather than chromosome replication. DNA replication occurs before meiosis."}]},{"id":"c8ab8dc6-c4ea-482c-88f8-38f117b84df9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What separates in Meiosis I versus Meiosis II?","back":"

Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes separate.
Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes separate.
Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes, one maternal and one paternal, separate during Meiosis I. Sister chromatids remain joined until Meiosis II, when they separate."},{"text":"

Meiosis I: sister chromatids separate.
Meiosis II: homologous chromosomes separate.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two meiotic divisions. Homologous chromosomes separate in Meiosis I, while sister chromatids separate in Meiosis II."},{"text":"

Meiosis I: sister chromatids separate.
Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids do not separate in both divisions. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, and Meiosis II separates the sister chromatids that remain joined after the first division."},{"text":"

Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes separate.
Meiosis II: homologous chromosomes separate.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes separate once, in Meiosis I, whereas sister chromatids separate in Meiosis II. The two divisions therefore do not both separate homologous chromosomes."}]},{"id":"114cd8bb-b158-41c4-9b08-2918acc188b6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Mitosis produces [ ] cells; meiosis produces [ ] cells.","back":"Mitosis produces two diploid, genetically identical cells; meiosis produces four haploid, genetically distinct cells.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mitosis produces two diploid, genetically identical cells; meiosis produces four haploid, genetically distinct cells.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitosis involves one division and maintains chromosome number, producing two genetically identical diploid cells. Meiosis involves two divisions and variation, producing four genetically distinct haploid cells."},{"text":"Mitosis produces four haploid, genetically distinct cells; meiosis produces two diploid, genetically identical cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the outcomes of the two processes. Mitosis produces two diploid genetically identical cells, whereas meiosis produces four haploid genetically distinct cells."},{"text":"Mitosis produces two haploid, genetically distinct cells; meiosis produces four diploid, genetically identical cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis does not halve chromosome number or generate four variable products. It produces two diploid genetically identical cells; meiosis produces four haploid genetically distinct cells."},{"text":"Mitosis produces four diploid, genetically identical cells; meiosis produces two haploid, genetically distinct cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis includes two nuclear divisions and produces four cells, while mitosis produces two. However, meiosis cells are haploid and genetically distinct, whereas mitotic cells are diploid and identical."}]},{"id":"7e376afb-9b84-41da-a088-e8ab40c40ce0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why do mature erythrocytes lack a nucleus and organelles?","back":"To leave maximum space for haemoglobin.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To leave maximum space for haemoglobin.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mature erythrocytes lose their nucleus and most organelles, allowing a greater proportion of the cell to be filled with haemoglobin. This maximises oxygen-carrying capacity."},{"text":"To leave maximum space for cell membrane.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mature erythrocytes retain a biconcave shape rather than losing organelles to create more membrane. Their lost nucleus and organelles mainly leave maximum space for haemoglobin."},{"text":"To leave maximum space for mitochondria.","correct":false,"explanation":"Erythrocytes do not need extra organelles for aerobic respiration because mature cells lack mitochondria. Removing organelles leaves maximum internal space for haemoglobin."},{"text":"To leave maximum space for DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"A nucleus contains genetic material but does not carry oxygen. Its absence in mature erythrocytes increases the available space for haemoglobin, which binds and transports oxygen."}]},{"id":"f4f06019-f33f-4947-8d99-7213dabea40a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does a root hair cell's long extension improve absorption?","back":"It increases surface area for water and mineral ion uptake.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It increases surface area for water and mineral ion uptake.","correct":true,"explanation":"The long root hair extension greatly increases the cell's surface area in contact with soil. This provides more membrane through which water and mineral ions can be absorbed."},{"text":"It decreases surface area for water and mineral ion uptake.","correct":false,"explanation":"A longer extension increases surface area rather than reducing the distance across the soil. The larger contact area improves uptake of water and mineral ions."},{"text":"It increases chlorophyll concentration for water and mineral ion uptake.","correct":false,"explanation":"Root hair cells are specialised for absorption, not photosynthesis. Their extension increases surface area for water and mineral ion uptake, while roots generally lack chloroplasts."},{"text":"It increases cell volume for water and mineral ion uptake.","correct":false,"explanation":"The extension does not mainly increase the cell's volume or create a storage compartment. Its key adaptation is increased surface area for contact with soil water and ions."}]},{"id":"8c3bd600-006d-46c7-a755-c31db1c501de","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do xylem vessels have no end walls?","back":"They form continuous tubes for water and mineral transport.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They form continuous tubes for water and mineral transport.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without end walls, adjacent xylem vessel elements join to form uninterrupted hollow tubes. This reduces obstructions and allows water and dissolved mineral ions to move continuously."},{"text":"They form sealed chambers for water and mineral transport.","correct":false,"explanation":"Xylem vessels are specialised for transport rather than preventing water movement. Removing end walls creates continuous tubes, allowing water and mineral ions to pass along them."},{"text":"They form separate compartments for water and mineral transport.","correct":false,"explanation":"End walls would interrupt the pathway rather than increase its length. Their absence allows vessel elements to join into continuous tubes for water and mineral transport."},{"text":"They form flexible tubes for water and mineral transport.","correct":false,"explanation":"Xylem vessels do have lignified walls for support, but the absence of end walls is specifically a transport adaptation. It creates continuous tubes for water and mineral ions."}]},{"id":"e8066327-31c4-4a4c-88d8-a1fd8080367c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What two abilities make stem cells useful for replacing damaged tissue?","back":"

Self-renewal by mitosis.
Differentiation into specialised cells.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Self-renewal by mitosis.
Differentiation into specialised cells.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Stem cells are useful because mitotic self-renewal maintains their population, while differentiation produces the specialised cell types needed to replace damaged tissue."},{"text":"

Self-renewal by differentiation.
Differentiation into specialised cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Differentiation creates specialised cells but does not maintain the stem-cell population. The required first ability is self-renewal by mitosis, alongside differentiation into specialised cells."},{"text":"

Self-renewal by mitosis.
Differentiation into unspecialised cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Stem cells must differentiate into specialised cells for tissue replacement, not remain unspecialised. The two abilities are self-renewal by mitosis and differentiation into specialised cells."},{"text":"

Self-renewal by meiosis.
Differentiation into specialised cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis produces genetically variable gametes and would reduce the stem-cell population, rather than renewing it. Stem cells self-renew by mitosis and differentiate into specialised cells."}]},{"id":"474db1b8-6871-48f0-8343-8fd47c9b0e34","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; [ ] stem cells form body cells only.","back":"Totipotent stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; pluripotent stem cells form body cells only.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Totipotent stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; pluripotent stem cells form body cells only.","correct":true,"explanation":"Totipotent stem cells can produce all cell types, including extra-embryonic tissues such as the placenta. Pluripotent stem cells can form body cells but not extra-embryonic tissues."},{"text":"Pluripotent stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; multipotent stem cells form body cells only.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pluripotent cells can form many body-cell types but cannot form extra-embryonic tissues. Totipotent cells have the wider potential and can produce both embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues."},{"text":"Totipotent stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; multipotent stem cells form body cells only.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multipotent cells form a limited range of related body cells, whereas totipotent cells can form extra-embryonic tissues. The correct pairing is totipotent followed by pluripotent."},{"text":"Unipotent stem cells can form extra-embryonic tissues; totipotent stem cells form body cells only.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unipotent cells produce only one specialised cell type and therefore cannot form extra-embryonic tissues. Totipotent cells have the broadest developmental potential, while pluripotent cells form body cells only."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-06-07","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Cell division, cell diversity and cellular organisation","title":"Cell division, cell diversity and cellular organisation Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/biology/ocr/a/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"7e74fafd-c938-5db5-b78f-6e6b0b10e2fb","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]