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24:[["$","$L33",null,{"feature":"flashcards"}],"$L34",["$","$L35",null,{"href":"/a-level/biology/eduqas/sexual-reproduction-in-humans/flashcards","label":"Sexual reproduction in humans","subjectCode":"a_level_biology__eduqas","surface":"flashcards"}],["$","$L36",null,{"runner":["$","div",null,{"className":"min-h-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden bg-background","children":["$","$L37",null,{"decks":[{"id":"d409934f-62a8-4cda-bd2d-9064e13a7336","title":"Sexual reproduction in humans Flashcards","topicId":"caee0223-bd8b-5694-9fd1-95217bb395ba","topicSlug":"sexual-reproduction-in-humans","cards":[{"id":"217ef7ab-2490-4aa9-88d2-41afe6f94c58","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where exactly does sperm production (spermatogenesis) occur?","back":"The seminiferous tubules in the testes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The seminiferous tubules in the testes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spermatogenesis takes place within the seminiferous tubules, where germ cells develop through mitosis and meiosis before differentiating into spermatozoa."},{"text":"The epididymis next to the testes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The epididymis stores sperm and is where they mature and acquire motility, rather than where spermatogenesis occurs. Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes."},{"text":"The interstitial tissue in the testes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The interstitial tissue contains Leydig cells that secrete testosterone, but it is not the site of sperm formation. Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules."},{"text":"The vas deferens outside the testes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The vas deferens transports mature sperm from the epididymis towards the urethra; it does not produce them. Sperm production occurs in the seminiferous tubules."}]},{"id":"b3ccfbe2-713b-4415-bd14-0b8a5fd6de00","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the function of Leydig cells?","back":"They secrete testosterone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They secrete testosterone.","correct":true,"explanation":"Leydig cells are endocrine cells located between the seminiferous tubules. They release testosterone, which supports spermatogenesis and the development of male secondary sexual characteristics."},{"text":"They secrete follicle-stimulating hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"FSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary, not by Leydig cells. Leydig cells respond to LH by secreting testosterone."},{"text":"They secrete inhibin.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inhibin is principally secreted by Sertoli cells and helps regulate FSH release. Leydig cells instead secrete testosterone in response to LH stimulation."},{"text":"They secrete luteinising hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Luteinising hormone is released by the anterior pituitary and stimulates Leydig cells. The hormone produced by Leydig cells themselves is testosterone."}]},{"id":"7c5b3ce6-cb05-488a-b3fa-bcebbc760861","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the function of Sertoli cells?","back":"They support and nourish developing sperm cells.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They support and nourish developing sperm cells.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sertoli cells provide developing sperm cells with physical support and nutrients. They also help regulate spermatogenesis within the seminiferous tubules."},{"text":"They secrete testosterone for developing sperm cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone is secreted by Leydig cells in the interstitial tissue, not by Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells support and nourish sperm as they develop."},{"text":"They propel and transport developing sperm cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperm acquire motility while maturing in the epididymis rather than through propulsion by Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells support and nourish developing sperm cells."},{"text":"They store and protect mature sperm cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperm are stored mainly in the epididymis, not within Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells provide support and nourishment during sperm development in the seminiferous tubules."}]},{"id":"8609210f-f342-4d02-92a8-6eec61e00a5a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where do sperm cells mature and become motile?","back":"The epididymis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The epididymis.","correct":true,"explanation":"After leaving the seminiferous tubules, sperm pass into the epididymis. During their time there, they mature and acquire the ability to swim."},{"text":"The seminiferous tubules.","correct":false,"explanation":"The seminiferous tubules are where sperm are produced, but newly formed sperm are not yet motile. They mature and acquire motility in the epididymis."},{"text":"The vas deferens.","correct":false,"explanation":"The vas deferens primarily transports mature sperm from the epididymis towards the urethra. Sperm acquire motility and mature in the epididymis before entering it."},{"text":"The prostate gland.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prostate contributes alkaline fluid to semen, but it is not where sperm cells mature. Their maturation and acquisition of motility occur in the epididymis."}]},{"id":"028973d1-dd4b-445c-ae41-c4d936343055","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the function of the fimbriae?","back":"Finger-like projections that guide the secondary oocyte into the oviduct.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Finger-like projections that guide the secondary oocyte into the oviduct.","correct":true,"explanation":"The fimbriae are projections at the end of the oviduct that help sweep the secondary oocyte released during ovulation into the oviduct."},{"text":"Finger-like projections that guide the primary oocyte into the oviduct.","correct":false,"explanation":"A primary oocyte completes meiosis I before ovulation, producing the secondary oocyte that is released. The fimbriae guide this secondary oocyte into the oviduct."},{"text":"Finger-like projections that guide the spermatozoa into the oviduct.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperm reach the oviduct by swimming through the female reproductive tract, not through guidance by the fimbriae. The fimbriae guide the secondary oocyte into the oviduct."},{"text":"Finger-like projections that guide the blastocyst into the oviduct.","correct":false,"explanation":"A blastocyst forms several days after fertilisation and travels towards the uterus from within the oviduct. The fimbriae instead collect the newly ovulated secondary oocyte."}]},{"id":"391df354-a14b-4362-9b30-7d849002263d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Compare the number of functional gametes produced from one primary spermatocyte vs one primary oocyte.","back":"

Spermatocyte: four functional spermatozoa.
Oocyte: one functional secondary oocyte (and polar bodies).

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Spermatocyte: four functional spermatozoa.
Oocyte: one functional secondary oocyte (and polar bodies).

","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis and differentiation of one primary spermatocyte produce four functional spermatozoa. Unequal cytokinesis during oogenesis produces one large functional secondary oocyte and small polar bodies."},{"text":"

Spermatocyte: four functional spermatozoa.
Oocyte: four functional secondary oocytes (and no polar bodies).

","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly assumes equal cytokinesis produces four functional female gametes. Oogenesis divides cytoplasm unequally, so one primary oocyte produces one functional secondary oocyte and polar bodies."},{"text":"

Spermatocyte: one functional spermatozoon.
Oocyte: one functional secondary oocyte (and polar bodies).

","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks that both meiotic divisions ultimately yield four functional male gametes. One primary spermatocyte produces four spermatozoa, whereas one primary oocyte produces one functional secondary oocyte."},{"text":"

Spermatocyte: one functional spermatozoon.
Oocyte: four functional secondary oocytes (and no polar bodies).

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the outcomes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis produces four functional spermatozoa, while unequal cytoplasmic division in oogenesis leaves only one functional secondary oocyte."}]},{"id":"e2e0a723-d47b-44b9-9408-94f3e64266f5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is cytoplasm divided unequally during oogenesis?","back":"To ensure the secondary oocyte (and resulting embryo) has enough nutrient reserves for early development.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To ensure the secondary oocyte (and resulting embryo) has enough nutrient reserves for early development.","correct":true,"explanation":"Unequal cytokinesis concentrates most of the cytoplasm and stored nutrients in the secondary oocyte. These reserves support cellular activities and early development before implantation."},{"text":"To ensure the polar bodies (and resulting embryos) have enough nutrient reserves for early development.","correct":false,"explanation":"Polar bodies mainly remove surplus chromosome sets and receive very little cytoplasm; they do not develop into embryos. Cytoplasm is retained by the secondary oocyte to provide nutrient reserves."},{"text":"To ensure the secondary oocyte (and resulting embryo) has enough chromosome copies for early development.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unequal division does not increase the secondary oocyte’s chromosome number, which remains haploid after meiosis I. It concentrates nutrient-rich cytoplasm for early development."},{"text":"To ensure the spermatozoon (and resulting embryo) has enough nutrient reserves for early development.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperm cells are produced during spermatogenesis and contribute very little cytoplasm at fertilisation. Unequal cytokinesis instead supplies the secondary oocyte with nutrient reserves for early development."}]},{"id":"e0d17c29-4b78-4c20-8834-25d9a98a56b4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the role of the acrosome reaction?","back":"Enzymes are released to digest the zona pellucida so the sperm can reach the oocyte membrane.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Enzymes are released to digest the zona pellucida so the sperm can reach the oocyte membrane.","correct":true,"explanation":"During the acrosome reaction, hydrolytic enzymes are released from the sperm’s acrosome. These digest a pathway through the zona pellucida, allowing contact with the oocyte membrane."},{"text":"Enzymes are released to digest the oocyte membrane so the sperm can enter the oocyte cytoplasm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digesting the oocyte membrane would damage the cell rather than enable controlled fertilisation. Acrosomal enzymes digest the zona pellucida so the sperm can reach and fuse with the membrane."},{"text":"Enzymes are released to harden the zona pellucida so additional sperm cannot reach the oocyte membrane.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cortical reaction occurs after sperm-oocyte membrane fusion and modifies the zona pellucida to prevent polyspermy. The acrosome reaction instead digests the zona pellucida."},{"text":"Enzymes are released to digest the uterine lining so the sperm can reach the oocyte membrane.","correct":false,"explanation":"The acrosome reaction enables penetration of the oocyte’s protective zona pellucida, not implantation in the uterus. Implantation occurs later, after the embryo has developed into a blastocyst."}]},{"id":"0faa20ef-69ea-40fc-80dc-21fd66366f1e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the purpose of the cortical reaction?","back":"To prevent polyspermy (the entry of more than one sperm).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To prevent polyspermy (the entry of more than one sperm).","correct":true,"explanation":"The cortical reaction modifies the zona pellucida after the first sperm fuses with the egg, preventing additional sperm from entering and ensuring normal diploid fertilisation."},{"text":"To allow polyspermy (the entry of more than one sperm).","correct":false,"explanation":"The cortical reaction does not promote several sperm entering the egg. It changes the zona pellucida to block further sperm, preventing polyspermy and abnormal chromosome numbers."},{"text":"To trigger the acrosome reaction (the release of enzymes from the sperm).","correct":false,"explanation":"The acrosome reaction helps a sperm penetrate the egg coverings and occurs before fusion. The cortical reaction happens afterwards and prevents further sperm entry by blocking polyspermy."},{"text":"To initiate meiosis II in the secondary oocyte.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cortical reaction does not cause the egg nucleus to divide. Its role is to alter the zona pellucida after fertilisation, preventing polyspermy."}]},{"id":"6e5e7228-7bb2-4820-b565-947f3f0677bd","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In oogenesis, primary oocytes are arrested in [ ] before birth and only complete meiosis II if fertilisation occurs.","back":"In oogenesis, primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I before birth and only complete meiosis II if fertilisation occurs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"prophase I","correct":true,"explanation":"Primary oocytes begin meiosis before birth but pause during the first meiotic division. They resume this division after puberty, with completion of meiosis II requiring fertilisation."},{"text":"metaphase I","correct":false,"explanation":"Metaphase I is not the developmental arrest stage of primary oocytes. They remain paused in prophase I before birth and resume meiosis later in the ovarian cycle."},{"text":"prophase II","correct":false,"explanation":"Prophase II occurs only after meiosis I has produced a secondary oocyte. Primary oocytes are arrested much earlier, in prophase I, before birth."},{"text":"metaphase II","correct":false,"explanation":"Metaphase II is the stage at which the secondary oocyte is usually arrested after ovulation. The primary oocyte is arrested in prophase I before birth."}]},{"id":"e31c2f64-dfc3-499e-b5a5-4b87a0f362e0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In oogenesis, primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I before birth and only complete meiosis II if [ ] occurs.","back":"In oogenesis, primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I before birth and only complete meiosis II if fertilisation occurs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"fertilisation","correct":true,"explanation":"Fertilisation activates the secondary oocyte and allows meiosis II to finish. Without sperm fusion, the oocyte remains arrested and does not complete this division."},{"text":"ovulation","correct":false,"explanation":"Ovulation releases the secondary oocyte from the follicle but does not complete meiosis II. Completion occurs only when fertilisation activates the oocyte."},{"text":"implantation","correct":false,"explanation":"Implantation is attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining and occurs after fertilisation. It is not the event that releases the oocyte from meiotic arrest."},{"text":"menstruation","correct":false,"explanation":"Menstruation is the shedding of the endometrium when pregnancy has not occurred. It does not activate the secondary oocyte or complete meiosis II."}]},{"id":"676405c8-64e2-4783-ab3d-c7948a238236","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is a blastocyst and when does implantation usually occur?","back":"

A hollow ball of cells formed by cleavage.
Implantation occurs 6-7 days after fertilisation.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

A hollow ball of cells formed by cleavage.
Implantation occurs 6-7 days after fertilisation.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Cleavage produces a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. It normally attaches to and implants in the endometrium approximately 6-7 days after fertilisation."},{"text":"

A solid ball of cells formed by cleavage.
Implantation occurs 6-7 days after fertilisation.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A solid ball of cells is a morula, an earlier stage before the fluid-filled blastocyst forms. Implantation usually occurs about 6-7 days after fertilisation, not immediately."},{"text":"

A hollow ball of cells formed by cleavage.
Implantation occurs at fertilisation.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The blastocyst forms by cleavage and is hollow, rather than being a single cell. Implantation occurs around 6-7 days after fertilisation, not during fertilisation itself."},{"text":"

A solid embryo formed by implantation.
Implantation occurs 6-7 days after fertilisation.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A blastocyst is not a solid embryo formed after implantation. It is hollow and forms by cleavage, then implants approximately 6-7 days after fertilisation."}]},{"id":"94fb5bc6-b0d9-44ec-8168-2daf779071c2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"State two effects of the LH surge in the menstrual cycle.","back":"

Triggers ovulation.
Causes the remains of the follicle to become the corpus luteum.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Triggers ovulation.
Causes the remains of the follicle to become the corpus luteum.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The LH surge causes ovulation and then promotes development of the follicle remnant into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone during the luteal phase."},{"text":"

Triggers follicle growth.
Causes the remains of the follicle to become the corpus luteum.

","correct":false,"explanation":"FSH stimulates follicle growth, but the LH surge specifically triggers ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum from the follicle remnant."},{"text":"

Triggers menstruation.
Causes the remains of the follicle to become the corpus luteum.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The LH surge does not cause menstruation or destroy the follicle remnant. It triggers ovulation and converts the remaining follicle into the corpus luteum."},{"text":"

Triggers ovulation.
Causes the remains of the follicle to become a polar body.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The follicle remnant becomes the corpus luteum after the LH surge, not a polar body. The surge also triggers ovulation rather than fertilisation."}]},{"id":"c8f5f6ae-e248-407b-9a0e-ef390bfa9877","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"High levels of [ ] maintain the thickness of the endometrium and exert negative feedback on the pituitary to inhibit FSH and LH.","back":"High levels of progesterone maintain the thickness of the endometrium and exert negative feedback on the pituitary to inhibit FSH and LH.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"progesterone","correct":true,"explanation":"Progesterone from the corpus luteum maintains the endometrium after ovulation and inhibits pituitary FSH and LH secretion through negative feedback."},{"text":"oestrogen","correct":false,"explanation":"Oestrogen helps rebuild the endometrium and participates in feedback, but high progesterone is the principal hormone maintaining the lining after ovulation."},{"text":"FSH","correct":false,"explanation":"FSH stimulates follicle development rather than maintaining the endometrium through pituitary inhibition. Progesterone provides this post-ovulation negative feedback."},{"text":"LH","correct":false,"explanation":"LH supports corpus luteum formation but is not the hormone maintaining the endometrium and inhibiting pituitary gonadotrophins at this stage. That role belongs to progesterone."}]},{"id":"74b86a80-7525-4daf-ac19-3d6439f105cc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"High levels of progesterone maintain the thickness of the endometrium and exert [ ] on the pituitary to inhibit FSH and LH.","back":"High levels of progesterone maintain the thickness of the endometrium and exert negative feedback on the pituitary to inhibit FSH and LH.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"negative feedback","correct":true,"explanation":"Negative feedback reduces pituitary secretion of FSH and LH when progesterone levels are high, preventing further follicle development and another ovulation during the cycle."},{"text":"positive feedback","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive feedback amplifies hormone secretion and is associated with the LH surge. High progesterone instead suppresses FSH and LH through negative feedback."},{"text":"direct stimulation","correct":false,"explanation":"Progesterone does not stimulate the pituitary to release more gonadotrophins in this situation. It inhibits FSH and LH secretion by negative feedback."},{"text":"competitive inhibition","correct":false,"explanation":"Competitive inhibition describes molecules competing for binding sites, not the hormonal control described here. Progesterone suppresses pituitary output through negative feedback."}]},{"id":"1d759c6f-d228-4b8b-a63e-476bd6dbb9fd","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does hCG maintain early pregnancy?","back":"It maintains the corpus luteum, which continues to secrete progesterone to prevent menstruation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It maintains the corpus luteum, which continues to secrete progesterone to prevent menstruation.","correct":true,"explanation":"hCG acts like LH and keeps the corpus luteum functioning during early pregnancy. The corpus luteum continues releasing progesterone, maintaining the endometrium and preventing menstruation."},{"text":"It causes the corpus luteum to degenerate, which stops secreting progesterone to prevent menstruation.","correct":false,"explanation":"hCG does not cause the corpus luteum to degenerate. It maintains it so progesterone secretion continues, preserving the endometrium and preventing menstruation."},{"text":"It maintains the follicle, which continues to secrete oestrogen to prevent menstruation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The follicle develops into the corpus luteum after ovulation, and hCG maintains that structure. It does not maintain a follicle or rely on oestrogen to prevent menstruation."},{"text":"It maintains the corpus luteum, which stops secreting progesterone to prevent menstruation.","correct":false,"explanation":"hCG maintains progesterone secretion rather than stopping it. Continued progesterone supports the endometrium and prevents menstruation during early pregnancy."}]},{"id":"2ae7fdfd-ef02-4861-9cda-8941578c95c9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How is the placenta adapted for efficient exchange between maternal and fetal blood?","back":"

Chorionic villi provide a large surface area.
Very short diffusion distance between the two circulations.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Chorionic villi provide a large surface area.
Very short diffusion distance between the two circulations.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Chorionic villi greatly increase the exchange surface, while the thin placental barrier minimises diffusion distance. Together, these adaptations allow rapid transfer of substances between the separate circulations."},{"text":"

Alveoli provide a large surface area.
Very short diffusion distance between the two circulations.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Alveoli are gas-exchange structures in the lungs, not structures of the placenta. Placental chorionic villi provide the large surface area, alongside a short diffusion distance."},{"text":"

Chorionic villi provide a large surface area.
Maternal and fetal blood mix directly within the placenta.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Maternal and fetal blood normally remain separate rather than mixing directly. Exchange occurs across the thin placental barrier, whose chorionic villi provide a large surface area."},{"text":"

Chorionic villi reduce the surface area.
A thick placental barrier separates the two circulations.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing surface area and increasing barrier thickness would slow diffusion. Chorionic villi instead enlarge the surface area, and the short diffusion distance makes exchange efficient."}]},{"id":"5a995ca4-4e39-45f0-9b64-547b7ea8d228","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Contrast the contents of the umbilical artery and umbilical vein.","back":"

Umbilical artery: deoxygenated blood/urea (fetus to placenta).
Umbilical vein: oxygenated blood/nutrients (placenta to fetus).

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Umbilical artery: deoxygenated blood/urea (fetus to placenta).
Umbilical vein: oxygenated blood/nutrients (placenta to fetus).

","correct":true,"explanation":"Umbilical vessels are named by their direction relative to the fetal heart. The artery carries fetal waste to the placenta, while the vein returns oxygen and nutrients."},{"text":"

Umbilical artery: oxygenated blood/nutrients (fetus to placenta).
Umbilical vein: deoxygenated blood/urea (placenta to fetus).

","correct":false,"explanation":"This applies the usual systemic association between arteries and oxygenated blood, but umbilical vessels are exceptions. The artery carries deoxygenated blood and urea; the vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients."},{"text":"

Umbilical artery: deoxygenated blood/urea (placenta to fetus).
Umbilical vein: oxygenated blood/nutrients (fetus to placenta).

","correct":false,"explanation":"The contents are paired with the correct vessels, but both directions are reversed. The umbilical artery travels from fetus to placenta, whereas the vein returns to the fetus."},{"text":"

Umbilical artery: deoxygenated blood/nutrients (fetus to placenta).
Umbilical vein: oxygenated blood/urea (placenta to fetus).

","correct":false,"explanation":"Nutrients are delivered to the fetus with oxygenated blood, while urea leaves with deoxygenated blood. Therefore, the vein carries nutrients and the artery carries urea."}]},{"id":"d38d8461-d5fa-49e4-96a3-0f79499004cc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How is the hormone oxytocin involved in a positive feedback loop during birth?","back":"Uterine contractions stimulate the stretching of the cervix, which triggers more oxytocin release, leading to even stronger contractions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Uterine contractions stimulate the stretching of the cervix, which triggers more oxytocin release, leading to even stronger contractions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cervical stretching stimulates oxytocin release, which intensifies uterine contractions and causes further stretching. This self-amplifying cycle continues until the baby is delivered."},{"text":"Uterine contractions stimulate the stretching of the cervix, which triggers less oxytocin release, leading to progressively weaker contractions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced oxytocin would weaken contractions, making this negative feedback rather than positive feedback. Cervical stretching instead causes more oxytocin to be released, strengthening contractions."},{"text":"Uterine contractions stimulate the contraction of the cervix, which triggers more oxytocin release, leading to even weaker contractions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The uterus contracts while the cervix stretches and dilates. This stretching triggers additional oxytocin release, which strengthens rather than weakens subsequent uterine contractions."},{"text":"Uterine contractions stimulate the stretching of the cervix, which triggers more progesterone release, leading to even stronger contractions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Progesterone helps maintain pregnancy but is not the hormone driving this positive feedback loop. Cervical stretching increases oxytocin release, causing progressively stronger uterine contractions."}]},{"id":"2999bcd6-e03d-40ed-bf6d-ad37408d4630","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Distinguish between the roles of prolactin and oxytocin in lactation.","back":"

Prolactin: stimulates milk production.
Oxytocin: stimulates milk ejection (let-down reflex).

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Prolactin: stimulates milk production.
Oxytocin: stimulates milk ejection (let-down reflex).

","correct":true,"explanation":"Prolactin acts on mammary gland cells to synthesise milk. Oxytocin contracts myoepithelial cells surrounding the glands, forcing milk into the ducts during the let-down reflex."},{"text":"

Prolactin: stimulates milk ejection.
Oxytocin: stimulates milk production (let-down reflex).

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the hormones’ roles. Prolactin stimulates milk synthesis in the mammary glands, whereas oxytocin causes myoepithelial contraction and milk ejection."},{"text":"

Prolactin: stimulates milk production.
Oxytocin: stimulates milk production (let-down reflex).

","correct":false,"explanation":"Prolactin does stimulate milk production, but oxytocin does not produce additional milk. It contracts cells around the mammary glands to eject existing milk."},{"text":"

Prolactin: stimulates milk ejection.
Oxytocin: stimulates milk ejection (let-down reflex).

","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxytocin is responsible for milk ejection, not prolactin. Prolactin stimulates milk production, while oxytocin triggers contraction of myoepithelial cells during let-down."}]},{"id":"74071147-1f24-41ee-ac1a-d41bbc135f44","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The formula for magnification is $M = \\frac{\\text{[...]}}{\\text{actual size}}$.","back":"The formula for magnification is $M = \\frac{\\boxed{\\text{image size}}}{\\text{actual size}}$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$\\text{image size}$","correct":true,"explanation":"Magnification compares the measured size of an image with the specimen’s real size. Therefore, image size is the numerator and actual size is the denominator."},{"text":"$$\\text{actual size}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Placing actual size in the numerator reverses the required ratio. Magnification is calculated by dividing image size by actual size, not actual size by itself."},{"text":"$$\\text{scale bar length}$","correct":false,"explanation":"A scale bar can help determine image or actual size, but its length is not the numerator in the magnification formula. The numerator is image size."},{"text":"$$\\text{magnification}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Magnification is the result of the ratio, not a size placed in its numerator. The numerator must be image size, which is divided by actual size."}]},{"id":"f039bac1-af75-4132-a3b4-8d3602356ed6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The formula for magnification is $M = \\frac{\\text{image size}}{\\text{[...]}}$.","back":"The formula for magnification is $M = \\frac{\\text{image size}}{\\boxed{\\text{actual size}}}$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$\\text{actual size}$","correct":true,"explanation":"Magnification is the ratio of the image’s measured size to the specimen’s real size. The denominator must therefore be actual size, using consistent units."},{"text":"$$\\text{image size}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Using image size in both numerator and denominator would always give a magnification of one. The denominator should be the specimen’s actual size."},{"text":"$$\\text{scale bar length}$","correct":false,"explanation":"The scale bar may be used to calculate actual size, but it does not directly form the denominator of this equation. The denominator is actual size."},{"text":"$$\\text{magnification}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Magnification is the value produced by the calculation, not the denominator. Image size must be divided by actual size to obtain magnification."}]},{"id":"f57adba9-2a76-4452-bd91-9b4a99bc68e9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why do spermatozoa contain a high density of mitochondria?","back":"To provide ATP via aerobic respiration for the flagellum to move the sperm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To provide ATP via aerobic respiration for the flagellum to move the sperm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration to generate ATP. This energy powers movement of the flagellum, allowing the sperm to swim towards the egg."},{"text":"To provide ATP via anaerobic respiration for the flagellum to move the sperm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm rather than the mitochondria and yields much less ATP. The mitochondria provide ATP by aerobic respiration to power the flagellum."},{"text":"To provide enzymes via aerobic respiration for the acrosome to penetrate the egg.","correct":false,"explanation":"The digestive enzymes used to penetrate the egg are stored in the acrosome, not produced by mitochondria. Mitochondria generate ATP to power flagellar movement."},{"text":"To provide DNA via aerobic respiration for the nucleus to control the sperm.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sperm’s haploid genetic material is stored in its nucleus, not its mitochondria. Numerous mitochondria instead generate ATP for movement of the flagellum."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-06-07","paperLabel":"Component 1"},"heading":"Sexual reproduction in humans","title":"Sexual reproduction in humans Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/biology/eduqas/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"caee0223-bd8b-5694-9fd1-95217bb395ba","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]