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and organised into chromosomes, allowing the genetic information to be compactly packaged and accurately distributed during cell division."},{"text":"In nucleoli.","correct":false,"explanation":"The nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA and assembles ribosome subunits; it does not package the cell’s genetic information. Genetic information is packaged in chromosomes."},{"text":"In ribosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ribosomes translate messenger RNA to make polypeptides, so they are involved in gene expression rather than DNA packaging. Genetic information is packaged in chromosomes."},{"text":"In lysosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes used to digest cellular material, not genetic information. In eukaryotic cells, genetic information is packaged in chromosomes."}]},{"id":"8e22a544-8c59-4962-8765-c58fea6ab792","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A gene is a length of [ ] that codes for a [ ].","back":"A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or functional RNA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or functional RNA.","correct":true,"explanation":"A gene is a specific DNA sequence whose information produces either a polypeptide through transcription and translation or a functional RNA molecule through transcription."},{"text":"A gene is a length of protein that codes for a polypeptide or functional RNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship between genes and proteins: proteins can be products of gene expression, but genes are lengths of DNA that code for polypeptides or functional RNA."},{"text":"A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a carbohydrate or lipid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes do not directly code for carbohydrates or lipids. A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or a functional RNA molecule."},{"text":"A gene is a length of ATP that codes for a polypeptide or enzyme.","correct":false,"explanation":"ATP transfers energy and does not store genetic sequences. A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide, including an enzyme, or functional RNA."}]},{"id":"13b2a56e-624a-482d-9121-02946011130d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What joins sister chromatids together?","back":"The centromere.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The centromere.","correct":true,"explanation":"The centromere is the chromosome region that holds the two sister chromatids together after DNA replication and before they separate during cell division."},{"text":"The chiasma.","correct":false,"explanation":"A chiasma is a point where non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange DNA during crossing over. Sister chromatids are joined at the centromere."},{"text":"The spindle fibre.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores and move chromosomes during division; they do not join sister chromatids together. The chromatids are joined at the centromere."},{"text":"The homologous pair.","correct":false,"explanation":"A homologous pair consists of corresponding maternal and paternal chromosomes, not a structure joining chromatids. Two sister chromatids are joined at the centromere."}]},{"id":"1a70e448-f0d5-43a5-bfb9-eb048019d4b9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] cell has two chromosome sets; a [ ] cell has one.","back":"A diploid cell has two chromosome sets; a haploid cell has one.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A diploid cell has two chromosome sets; a haploid cell has one.","correct":true,"explanation":"Diploid cells contain two complete chromosome sets, usually one inherited from each parent, whereas haploid cells contain a single complete chromosome set."},{"text":"A haploid cell has two chromosome sets; a diploid cell has one.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the definitions. A diploid cell has two complete chromosome sets, while a haploid cell has only one complete chromosome set."},{"text":"A polyploid cell has two chromosome sets; a haploid cell has one.","correct":false,"explanation":"Polyploid describes cells with more than two complete chromosome sets, not exactly two. A cell with two chromosome sets is diploid, while one with one set is haploid."},{"text":"A diploid cell has two chromosome sets; a diploid cell has one.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second term confuses diploid with haploid. Diploid cells have two chromosome sets, whereas cells containing only one chromosome set are haploid."}]},{"id":"d454af30-2838-46f3-a045-6ef67b9c9bc5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How do homologous chromosomes compare in the genes they carry?","back":"They carry the same genes in the same positions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They carry the same genes in the same positions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes carry the same genes at corresponding loci, although the alleles of those genes may differ because one chromosome came from each parent."},{"text":"They carry the same alleles in the same positions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes have the same genes at corresponding loci but can carry different alleles of those genes. They do not necessarily carry identical alleles."},{"text":"They carry the same genes in different positions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The genes on homologous chromosomes occur at corresponding positions called loci. Therefore, homologous chromosomes carry the same genes in the same positions."},{"text":"They carry the different genes in the same positions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes contain the same genes, although their alleles may differ. Different genes are not normally found at matching positions."}]},{"id":"a5030457-fc74-4162-a0be-78c1e6f2eb30","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In which phase of interphase is DNA replicated?","back":"S phase.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"S phase.","correct":true,"explanation":"DNA replication occurs during S phase of interphase, producing two identical DNA molecules so that each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids."},{"text":"G1 phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"G1 is mainly a period of cell growth and protein and organelle production before replication. DNA is replicated later, during S phase."},{"text":"G2 phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"G2 occurs after DNA replication and involves further growth and preparation for mitosis. The DNA has already been copied during S phase."},{"text":"M phase.","correct":false,"explanation":"M phase is when replicated chromosomes are separated and the cell divides; it is not when DNA is copied. Replication occurs during S phase."}]},{"id":"b201ea75-6ec6-4639-ae7b-6244903e3a4a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"During [ ], each chromosome is copied to form two [ ].","back":"During S phase, each chromosome is copied to form two sister chromatids.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"During S phase, each chromosome is copied to form two sister chromatids.","correct":true,"explanation":"DNA replication during S phase copies each chromosome, producing two genetically identical sister chromatids that remain attached at their centromere until division."},{"text":"During G1 phase, each chromosome is copied to form two sister chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"G1 involves growth and biosynthesis rather than chromosome replication. Each chromosome is copied during S phase, producing two genetically identical sister chromatids."},{"text":"During S phase, each chromosome is copied to form two homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication produces sister chromatids, not homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are corresponding maternal and paternal chromosomes already present in a diploid cell."},{"text":"During G2 phase, each chromosome is copied to form two homologous chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"By G2, replication has already occurred, and “homologous chromatids” is not the correct relationship. S phase produces two sister chromatids from each chromosome."}]},{"id":"5cb3a839-a389-4f68-a72d-eb6fb35d5c2b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happens in G1 phase?","back":"The cell grows and makes proteins and organelles.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The cell grows and makes proteins and organelles.","correct":true,"explanation":"During G1, the cell increases in size and synthesises proteins and organelles needed for normal metabolism and preparation for the later stages of the cell cycle."},{"text":"The cell replicates its DNA and chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication occurs during S phase, not G1. In G1, the cell grows and produces proteins and organelles before its DNA is copied."},{"text":"The cell separates its sister chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids separate during anaphase of mitosis, not during G1. G1 is the interphase stage in which the cell grows and makes proteins and organelles."},{"text":"The cell divides its cytoplasm into two.","correct":false,"explanation":"Division of the cytoplasm occurs during cytokinesis at the end of cell division. During G1, the cell instead grows and synthesises proteins and organelles."}]},{"id":"2733a90c-2838-4f91-86f6-1576cadc8d92","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happens in G2 phase?","back":"The cell grows further and prepares for nuclear division.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The cell grows further and prepares for nuclear division.","correct":true,"explanation":"During G2, the cell continues growing, synthesises proteins needed for mitosis and checks replicated DNA before entering the nuclear division stage."},{"text":"The cell replicates its DNA to copy each chromosome.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication takes place during S phase, not G2. During G2, the cell grows further and makes the final preparations needed for nuclear division."},{"text":"The cell condenses its chromosomes and forms a spindle.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome condensation and spindle formation begin during prophase of mitosis. G2 occurs beforehand, when the cell grows further and prepares for nuclear division."},{"text":"The cell divides its cytoplasm into two daughter cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Division of the cytoplasm is cytokinesis, which occurs after or near the end of mitosis. G2 involves further growth and preparation for nuclear division."}]},{"id":"830adea4-f334-407e-94d9-91251011116a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Mitosis produces two genetically [ ] nuclei and keeps chromosome number the [ ].","back":"Mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei and keeps chromosome number the same.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei and keeps chromosome number the same.","correct":true,"explanation":"Replicated sister chromatids are separated equally during mitosis, so both daughter nuclei receive the same genetic information and the same chromosome number."},{"text":"Mitosis produces two genetically different nuclei and keeps chromosome number the same.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetically different nuclei are associated with meiosis and genetic variation. Mitosis normally separates identical sister chromatids to produce genetically identical nuclei with the same chromosome number."},{"text":"Mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei and keeps chromosome number the halved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Halving chromosome number occurs in meiosis, not mitosis. Mitosis produces genetically identical nuclei while maintaining the same chromosome number as the parent nucleus."},{"text":"Mitosis produces two genetically different nuclei and keeps chromosome number the doubled.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses mitosis with both genetic variation and DNA replication. Mitosis produces genetically identical nuclei and maintains, rather than doubles, the chromosome number."}]},{"id":"7ff2b44a-a2fe-47be-a9a8-984e825aafc5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In mitosis, which stage has chromosomes lined up at the equator?","back":"Metaphase.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Metaphase.","correct":true,"explanation":"During metaphase, spindle fibres position the chromosomes along the cell equator, forming the metaphase plate before sister chromatids separate."},{"text":"Prophase.","correct":false,"explanation":"During prophase, chromosomes condense and the spindle begins to form, but they have not yet aligned. Chromosomes line up at the equator during metaphase."},{"text":"Anaphase.","correct":false,"explanation":"During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles. Their alignment along the cell equator occurs earlier, during metaphase."},{"text":"Telophase.","correct":false,"explanation":"During telophase, chromosomes reach opposite poles and nuclear envelopes reform. Chromosomes were lined up at the equator earlier, during metaphase."}]},{"id":"f05d833b-f0ab-4200-a7a3-a8bc3b69c4a9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In mitotic metaphase, what do spindle fibres attach to?","back":"The centromeres.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The centromeres.","correct":true,"explanation":"In metaphase, spindle fibres attach at the centromere region of each chromosome, allowing the sister chromatids to be moved accurately during anaphase."},{"text":"The telomeres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes but are not the spindle attachment sites. Spindle fibres attach at the centromere region during metaphase."},{"text":"The chromosome arms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome arms contain most of the chromosome’s DNA but do not provide the specialised spindle attachment site. Spindle fibres attach at the centromeres."},{"text":"The nuclear envelopes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The nuclear envelope breaks down before metaphase and is not attached to spindle fibres. The fibres attach at the centromeres of the chromosomes."}]},{"id":"d171980b-4d50-4b2d-9ce6-64cf6040931e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What separates during anaphase of mitosis?","back":"Sister chromatids.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sister chromatids.","correct":true,"explanation":"During mitotic anaphase, the centromeres divide and spindle fibres pull sister chromatids apart, moving one copy towards each pole of the cell."},{"text":"Homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I of meiosis. In mitotic anaphase, it is the sister chromatids of each replicated chromosome that separate."},{"text":"Centrioles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Centrioles help organise the spindle and are already positioned near opposite poles. Anaphase is defined by the separation of sister chromatids."},{"text":"Nuclear envelopes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The nuclear envelope breaks down earlier in mitosis rather than separating during anaphase. Sister chromatids are the structures pulled apart at this stage."}]},{"id":"2cb02979-ab5c-456e-82e5-4a184eba14a2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"After mitotic anaphase separation, what is each chromatid considered?","back":"A chromosome.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A chromosome.","correct":true,"explanation":"Once sister chromatids separate at the centromere, each chromatid becomes an independent chromosome moving towards one pole of the cell."},{"text":"A chromosome pair.","correct":false,"explanation":"A separated chromatid is one DNA-containing structure, not a pair. After anaphase separation, each former chromatid is considered an individual chromosome."},{"text":"A bivalent.","correct":false,"explanation":"A bivalent consists of paired homologous chromosomes during meiosis I. After mitotic anaphase separation, each individual chromatid is considered a chromosome."},{"text":"A tetrad.","correct":false,"explanation":"A tetrad contains four chromatids formed when homologous chromosomes pair in meiosis. A chromatid separated during mitotic anaphase is considered a chromosome."}]},{"id":"575afb66-c988-4a2a-a1b7-7d861861b7f6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What reforms around each chromosome set in telophase?","back":"Nuclear envelopes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nuclear envelopes.","correct":true,"explanation":"During telophase, a nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes, producing two separate daughter nuclei within the cell."},{"text":"Cell membranes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cell membrane surrounds the entire cell and constricts during animal-cell cytokinesis. Nuclear envelopes reform around the separate chromosome sets during telophase."},{"text":"Spindle fibres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spindle fibres disassemble during telophase rather than reforming around the chromosomes. Nuclear envelopes form around each chromosome set to create daughter nuclei."},{"text":"Nucleoli.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nucleoli reappear within the daughter nuclei, but they do not enclose chromosome sets. Nuclear envelopes are the structures that reform around each set."}]},{"id":"5bf5be36-49d9-4ba8-8083-61228fd18d50","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How does cytokinesis occur in animal cells?","back":"The cell membrane constricts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The cell membrane constricts.","correct":true,"explanation":"In animal cells, a contractile ring causes the cell membrane to constrict at the equator, dividing the cytoplasm into two daughter cells."},{"text":"A cell plate forms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cell-plate formation is the plant-cell mechanism of cytokinesis because the rigid wall prevents constriction. In animal cells, the cell membrane constricts."},{"text":"The cell wall constricts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Animal cells do not have cell walls. Their flexible cell membrane constricts around the equator to separate the cytoplasm during cytokinesis."},{"text":"The cell membrane dissolves.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cell membrane must remain intact to enclose both daughter cells. During animal-cell cytokinesis, it constricts rather than dissolving."}]},{"id":"fb1bf348-bf05-4a02-8524-6a490cb6826c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How does cytokinesis occur in plant cells?","back":"A cell plate forms and becomes a new cell wall.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A cell plate forms and becomes a new cell wall.","correct":true,"explanation":"A cell plate develops between the two daughter nuclei and expands outwards, eventually forming the new cell wall that separates the daughter cells."},{"text":"A cleavage furrow forms and becomes a new cell wall.","correct":false,"explanation":"A cleavage furrow is the pinching mechanism used in animal cytokinesis. Plant cells cannot pinch because their rigid cell wall requires a cell plate to form the partition."},{"text":"A cell membrane splits and becomes a new cell wall.","correct":false,"explanation":"The plasma membrane does not simply split across the centre in plant cells. Vesicles assemble a cell plate, which develops into the separating cell wall."},{"text":"The existing cell wall dissolves and reforms around each nucleus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The existing cell wall is not dissolved to divide the cell. New material is deposited as a cell plate, which matures into a wall between the daughter cells."}]},{"id":"472eb72b-b2ee-4ca1-8037-f21334d69057","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What cell-cycle fault can lead to cancerous growth?","back":"Loss of normal cell-cycle control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loss of normal cell-cycle control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cancer can result when normal controls over the cell cycle are lost, allowing cells to continue dividing when they should stop or undergo apoptosis."},{"text":"Failure to replicate DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication is necessary before cell division and is not itself the defining fault causing cancer. Cancer commonly follows mutations that disrupt cell-cycle control mechanisms."},{"text":"Lengthening of the cell cycle.","correct":false,"explanation":"A shortened cell cycle alone is not the fundamental description of the fault. Uncontrolled division occurs because regulatory checkpoints and signals have been disrupted."},{"text":"Increase in cell differentiation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cell differentiation usually limits proliferation by giving cells specialised roles. Cancer is associated with disrupted regulation, not simply with increased differentiation."}]},{"id":"146d598b-27a7-46ba-83c4-0185d738ece5","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Meiosis involves [ ] divisions after [ ] round of DNA replication.","back":"Meiosis involves two divisions after one round of DNA replication.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Meiosis involves two divisions after one round of DNA replication.","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis has two nuclear divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II, but DNA is replicated only once beforehand, during interphase."},{"text":"Meiosis involves two divisions after two rounds of DNA replication.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA replication does not occur between meiosis I and meiosis II. The second division separates chromatids using the DNA copied during the single preceding replication round."},{"text":"Meiosis involves one division after one round of DNA replication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis contains two divisions rather than one: homologous chromosomes separate first, followed by sister chromatids in the second division."},{"text":"Meiosis involves one division after two rounds of DNA replication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication occurs once before meiosis begins, not twice. Two replication rounds would produce duplicated chromosomes before each division and is not the meiotic sequence."}]},{"id":"6007816e-797e-4c11-9d36-1507c7f58abe","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What separates in meiosis I?","back":"Homologous chromosomes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Homologous chromosomes.","correct":true,"explanation":"During meiosis I, homologous chromosome pairs separate, with one chromosome from each pair moving to each pole. Sister chromatids remain joined."},{"text":"Sister chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres during meiosis I. They separate during meiosis II, after homologous chromosomes have already been divided."},{"text":"Centromeres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Centromeres are regions joining sister chromatids rather than structures that separate as the chromosome pairs divide in meiosis I."},{"text":"Non-homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Non-homologous chromosomes are different chromosome types and do not pair as partners in meiosis. Homologous pairs, not unrelated chromosomes, separate at this stage."}]},{"id":"101b93d7-86da-4297-a403-3fa895dc7ae6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What separates in meiosis II?","back":"Sister chromatids.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sister chromatids.","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis II separates the two sister chromatids of each chromosome when centromeres divide, producing cells with one chromatid from each replicated chromosome."},{"text":"Homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis I, not meiosis II. By the second division, each homologous pair has already been separated into different cells."},{"text":"Centromeres.","correct":false,"explanation":"Centromeres hold sister chromatids together and divide during meiosis II, but they are not the structures being separated into daughter cells."},{"text":"Haploid nuclei.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two haploid nuclei are formed through chromosome segregation, but nuclei themselves do not separate as the key chromosome event in meiosis II."}]},{"id":"106198f8-ef72-482c-ba90-3039d56d2b5d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does crossing over create genetic variation?","back":"Chromatid sections are exchanged between homologous chromosomes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Chromatid sections are exchanged between homologous chromosomes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Crossing over exchanges corresponding sections of DNA between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, creating new combinations of alleles."},{"text":"Chromatid sections are exchanged between non-homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes rather than unrelated chromosomes. Exchange between non-homologous chromosomes would be a chromosomal rearrangement, not normal crossing over."},{"text":"Chromatid sections are exchanged between sister chromatids.","correct":false,"explanation":"The chromatids of one chromosome are sister chromatids and are usually genetically identical. Exchange between them would not normally create new allele combinations."},{"text":"Chromatid sections are removed from homologous chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Crossing over exchanges DNA sections but does not remove them permanently. Deletion would reduce genetic material rather than produce the usual recombinant combinations."}]},{"id":"1929d7f1-d803-45de-88fb-49e503ecee62","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What causes independent assortment in meiosis I?","back":"Random orientation of homologous pairs at the equator.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Random orientation of homologous pairs at the equator.","correct":true,"explanation":"Each homologous pair lines up independently at the equator, and its orientation is random. This distributes maternal and paternal chromosomes into gametes in different combinations."},{"text":"Fixed orientation of homologous pairs at the equator.","correct":false,"explanation":"Homologous pairs do not always orient in the same direction. Their random, independent orientations are what generate different chromosome combinations in daughter cells."},{"text":"Random orientation of sister chromatids at the equator.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sister chromatids are not the structures whose random arrangement causes independent assortment in meiosis I. Homologous pairs orient independently at the equator."},{"text":"Random movement of homologous pairs towards the poles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random movement of homologous pairs towards the poles is a consequence of their orientation, not the defining cause. Independent assortment begins with random equatorial alignment."}]},{"id":"312b2c01-971d-4a8e-bc2e-e7b0fd54617a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Meiosis produces four [ ] daughter cells that are genetically [ ].","back":"Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells that are genetically non-identical.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells that are genetically non-identical.","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis halves the chromosome number through two divisions and produces four cells. Crossing over and independent assortment make their genetic combinations non-identical."},{"text":"Meiosis produces four diploid daughter cells that are genetically non-identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis produces haploid rather than diploid daughter cells, because homologous chromosome pairs are separated to halve the chromosome number."},{"text":"Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells that are genetically identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"The products of meiosis are genetically non-identical because crossing over and independent assortment create different allele combinations, although they are haploid."},{"text":"Meiosis produces two diploid daughter cells that are genetically identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis produces four products, not two, and their chromosome number is haploid. The two divisions and genetic variation distinguish it from ordinary mitotic division."}]},{"id":"c9e14a11-f9bf-4880-a949-f5e00069abe7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why are root tips useful for observing mitosis?","back":"They contain meristem tissue where cells divide actively.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They contain meristem tissue where cells divide actively.","correct":true,"explanation":"Root tips contain meristem tissue, where cells undergo frequent mitosis to produce new root cells. This gives many cells at different stages of mitosis for observation."},{"text":"They contain epidermal tissue where cells divide actively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Epidermal tissue mainly forms the root’s protective outer layer and is not the principal region of active cell division. The meristem is the actively dividing tissue at the root tip."},{"text":"They contain vascular tissue where cells divide actively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Vascular tissue transports water and dissolved substances rather than providing the main site of mitosis. Root tips are useful because their meristem tissue contains actively dividing cells."},{"text":"They contain storage tissue where cells divide actively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Storage tissue is specialised mainly for holding reserves and does not contain the high concentration of dividing cells found in a meristem. The correct tissue is meristem tissue."}]},{"id":"a0f460b8-a003-44a2-b533-4e09783fc755","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is stain added in a root tip squash?","back":"It binds to chromosomes so they are visible.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It binds to chromosomes so they are visible.","correct":true,"explanation":"Chromosomes are too transparent to see clearly with a light microscope. The stain binds to them and increases contrast, making their shapes and positions visible."},{"text":"It dissolves chromosomes so they are visible.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stain does not dissolve chromosomes; destroying them would prevent their structure from being observed. It binds to chromosomes and increases their contrast so they become visible."},{"text":"It separates chromosomes so they are visible.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome separation occurs during mitosis, not because stain is added. Stain makes chromosomes visible by binding to them and increasing contrast under the microscope."},{"text":"It makes chromosomes reproduce so they are visible.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome replication occurs during interphase before mitosis and is not caused by stain. The stain’s role is to bind to chromosomes and make them visible."}]},{"id":"7c5a9723-7ab1-49ce-91c5-09a55ad01715","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is root tip tissue gently squashed under a coverslip?","back":"To spread cells into a thin layer.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To spread cells into a thin layer.","correct":true,"explanation":"Gently squashing spreads the root tip cells into a thin layer, reducing overlap. This allows individual cells and their chromosomes to be seen clearly through the microscope."},{"text":"To separate chromosomes into a thin layer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Squashing spreads whole cells rather than deliberately separating their chromosomes. The aim is to form a thin layer so individual cells can be observed without excessive overlap."},{"text":"To increase cell division into a thin layer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Squashing does not stimulate mitosis; it prepares the sample for viewing. It spreads the cells into a thin layer, making their structures easier to observe."},{"text":"To stain chromosomes into a thin layer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Staining is a separate preparation step and is responsible for increasing chromosome contrast. Squashing spreads the cells into a thin layer so they can be viewed clearly."}]},{"id":"da686c0c-712b-45c0-91a4-ef6e8b36349c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What cells in developing anthers undergo meiosis?","back":"Pollen mother cells.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Pollen mother cells.","correct":true,"explanation":"Pollen mother cells are diploid cells in developing anthers that undergo meiosis. They produce haploid cells, which develop into pollen grains."},{"text":"Guard cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Guard cells surround stomata and regulate gas exchange in leaves; they do not produce pollen by meiosis. Pollen mother cells in the anthers undergo this division."},{"text":"Tube cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tube cells are part of the developing pollen grain and help form the pollen tube during fertilisation. The meiotic cells in the anther are pollen mother cells."},{"text":"Pollen tube cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pollen tube cells arise after meiosis and are involved in transporting male nuclei towards the ovule. Meiosis occurs earlier in diploid pollen mother cells."}]},{"id":"4578056b-20d0-4686-a839-435b75fe02e6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Magnification = [ ] ÷ [ ].","back":"Magnification = image size ÷ actual object size.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Magnification = image size ÷ actual object size.","correct":true,"explanation":"Magnification compares the measured image size with the real size of the object. Dividing image size by actual object size gives the enlargement factor."},{"text":"Magnification = actual object size ÷ image size.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the magnification relationship and gives a fractional scale factor for an enlarged image. Magnification is calculated by dividing image size by actual object size."},{"text":"Magnification = image size × actual object size.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multiplying the two lengths does not produce a magnification factor and would leave squared units. The correct relationship divides image size by actual object size."},{"text":"Magnification = image size − actual object size.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subtracting the two lengths measures a difference, not how many times larger the image is. Magnification requires image size divided by actual object size."}]},{"id":"3dcb1b1b-ebb9-4d51-8dab-05a9a42b5629","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What must be true about units before calculating magnification?","back":"Image size and actual size must be in the same unit.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Image size and actual size must be in the same unit.","correct":true,"explanation":"Both measurements must use the same unit before division, such as millimetres or micrometres. Otherwise, the conversion factor creates an incorrect magnification."},{"text":"Image size and actual size must be in different units.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using different units without conversion introduces a factor-of-10, 100, or 1000 error. The measurements must first be converted into the same unit."},{"text":"Image size and actual size must be in the largest unit.","correct":false,"explanation":"The choice of unit size is not the key requirement; consistency is. Any suitable unit can be used provided both measurements are expressed in the same unit."},{"text":"Image size and actual size must be in the smallest unit.","correct":false,"explanation":"Micrometres are not compulsory, and converting everything to the smallest unit is unnecessary. The essential rule is that both measurements use matching units."}]},{"id":"b926f670-d796-4378-bf07-ad46359f136e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the mitotic index formula?","back":"$$\\text{mitotic index}=\\frac{\\text{number of cells in mitosis}}{\\text{total number of cells observed}}$","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$\\text{mitotic index}=\\frac{\\text{number of cells in mitosis}}{\\text{total number of cells observed}}$","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitotic index is the proportion of observed cells currently undergoing mitosis. It is found by dividing the number of cells in mitosis by the total number of cells observed."},{"text":"$$\\text{mitotic index}=\\frac{\\text{total number of cells observed}}{\\text{number of cells in mitosis}}$","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the numerator and denominator, producing the reciprocal of the mitotic index. The number of cells in mitosis must be divided by the total number observed."},{"text":"$$\\text{mitotic index}=\\frac{\\text{number of cells in interphase}}{\\text{total number of cells observed}}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Interphase cells are not counted in the numerator for mitotic index. The numerator specifically contains cells undergoing mitosis, divided by all cells observed."},{"text":"$$\\text{mitotic index}=\\frac{\\text{number of cells in mitosis}}{\\text{number of cells in interphase}}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Using interphase cells as the denominator excludes other observed stages and does not give the required proportion. The denominator is the total number of cells observed."}]},{"id":"deed56fc-91c6-4deb-b5fc-0a38ccb00941","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"A drawing is 45 mm long; the actual cell is 90 μm. What is the magnification?","back":"500 times.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"500 times.","correct":true,"explanation":"Convert 45 mm to 45,000 μm, then divide by the actual size: 45,000 ÷ 90 = 500. Therefore, the drawing is enlarged 500 times."},{"text":"50 times.","correct":false,"explanation":"This results from treating 45 mm as 4,500 μm instead of 45,000 μm, a conversion error by a factor of ten. Correct conversion gives 45,000 ÷ 90 = 500."},{"text":"5,000 times.","correct":false,"explanation":"This commonly comes from dividing by 9 instead of 90, effectively dropping a zero from the actual measurement. Using 45,000 μm ÷ 90 μm gives 500."},{"text":"0.5 times.","correct":false,"explanation":"A value below one suggests the ratio has been inverted or the unit conversion mishandled. The correct calculation is image size divided by actual size: 45,000 ÷ 90 = 500."}]},{"id":"a94348fc-57ad-42df-80e4-ab9f42cedbd9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"36 of 240 cells are in mitosis; the cell cycle is 16 h. Estimate time in mitosis.","back":"2.4 h or 144 min.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"2.4 h or 144 min.","correct":true,"explanation":"The proportion in mitosis is $36/240 = 0.15$. Assuming this proportion represents the fraction of the cycle spent in mitosis, $0.15 \\times 16 = 2.4$ h, or 144 min."},{"text":"6.7 h or 400 min.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dividing 240 by 36 gives the ratio of total cells to mitotic cells, not the time in mitosis. The correct calculation is $(36/240) \\times 16 = 2.4$ h, or 144 min."},{"text":"5.8 h or 346 min.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using 36 as a percentage instead of calculating the proportion $36/240$ produces this overestimate. Mitotic cells represent 15% of the sample, giving $0.15 \\times 16 = 2.4$ h."},{"text":"1.6 h or 96 min.","correct":false,"explanation":"This results from treating the mitotic proportion as 10% rather than 15%. Since $36/240 = 0.15$, the estimated time is $0.15 \\times 16 = 2.4$ h, or 144 min."}]},{"id":"f48155aa-b680-41fc-be0a-43b76182bec0","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How can reliability be improved when estimating proportions of cells in stages?","back":"

Count a large number of cells.
Use several fields of view.
Avoid choosing only the clearest cells.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Count a large number of cells.
Use several fields of view.
Avoid choosing only the clearest cells.

","correct":true,"explanation":"A large sample drawn from several fields reduces random sampling error, while avoiding selection of only clear cells limits observer bias and makes the estimated proportions more representative."},{"text":"

Count a small number of cells.
Use one field of view.
Choose only the clearest cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A small sample and a single field increase sampling error, while selecting only clear cells introduces bias. Reliability improves by counting many cells across several fields without choosing cells selectively."},{"text":"

Count the same cells repeatedly.
Use the clearest field of view.
Avoid including any unclear cells.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeatedly counting the same cells does not increase sample size, and using one clear field creates selection bias. Many different cells from several fields should be counted without selective sampling."},{"text":"

Count only dividing cells.
Use adjacent fields of view.
Avoid counting cells in interphase.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricting observations to dividing cells and excluding interphase makes the estimated proportions systematically biased. Reliability requires many cells from several fields, selected without favouring particular stages or appearances."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-06-07","paperLabel":"Component 1"},"heading":"Genetic information is copied and passed on to daughter cells","title":"Genetic information is copied and passed on to daughter cells Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/biology/eduqas/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"b498e388-c731-5f34-8c16-814675f54961","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]